Moreover, these exercises were not conceived of as purely intellectual, as merely theoretical and formal exercises of discourse totally separated from life.
Throughout the history of ancient philosophy, we can find criticisms of those philosophers who went no further than to develop a beautiful style of discourse or dialectical subtlety, who wished to stand out by making an ostentatious display of their philosophical discourse, but did not exercise themselves in the things of life. 1 17 Rather than aiming at the acquisition of a purely abstract knowledge, these exercises aimed at realizing a transformation of one's vision of the world and a metamorphosis of one's personality. The philosopher needed to be trained not only to know how to speak and debate, but also to know how to live. The exercise of philosophy "was therefore not only intellectual, but could also be spiritual. " 1 18 Hence, the teaching and training of philosophy were intended not simply to develop the intelligence of the disciple, but to transform all aspects of his being - intellect, imagination, sensibility, and will. Its goal was nothing less than an art of living, and so spiritual exercises were exercises in learning to live the philosophical life. 1 19 Spiritual exercises were e.wrcises because they were practical, required effort and training, and were lived; they were spiritual because they involved the entire spirit, one's whole way of being. 120 The art of living demanded by philosophy was a lived exercise exhibited in every aspect of one's existence.
Since the ultimate goal of the theoretical discourse of philosophy was to produce an effect in the soul of the listener or reader, this discourse had to bear in mind not only pedagogical constraints, but "the needs of psychagogy, of the direction of souls." 121 Rhetorical resources were abundantly made use of by the philosopher, and in attempting to influence himself and others all means were good. 122 In order "to rectify distorted opinions, tenacious prejudices, irrational terrors," the philosopher might have "to twist them in the other direction, to exaggerate in order to compensate." 123 In ancient texts, we dii;cover thiu "one slides rapidly from theoretical exposition to
22
Introduction
exhortation," as often happens in Plotinus' treatises;1H we even find at the end of the Nicomachean Ethics an accentuated protreptic and exhortative character, as Aristotle is recommending to others a certain kind of life, a spetific conception of the good life. 125 The "presentation, literary form and content"
of philosophical discourse were modified by "the intention to influence the disciples." 126 It is from this perspective that Hadot believes we must understand "the effort of systematization of the Stoics and Epicureans." 127 He has argued that the systematic discourse of these schools did not have for its chief goal
to procure a total and exhaustive explanation of all reality, but to link, in an unshakable way, a small group of principles, vigorously articulated together, which, on the one hand, on the basis of this systematization, possess a greater persuasive force, a better psychological efficacy and which, on the other hand, enable the philosopher to orient himself in the world.128
This systematization thus allows the philosopher to bring together and focus the fundamental rules of life so that he can "keep them ready to hand at each instant of his life." 129 As Hadot says, "their systematic presentation produces assurance [la certitude] in the soul, therefore peace and serenity." 130
In studying the literary genre of the ancient consolation, llsetraut Hadot has clearly demonstrated the intimate connection between the practice of spiritual exercises, the use of rhetoric and psychagogy, and literary form and content. Since, beginning with Plato, ancient philosophy represented itself as an exercise and training for death, the consolation is an ideal genre in which to observe the ancient practice of philosophy. 1.11 Noting that in all the written consolations of antiquity, we encounter nearly always the same arguments, she remarks that new and original arguments were not what the ancients sought after; in the best instances, the consolations had as their goal "to recall well-known things, to reactivate them in the soul." 1.12 These consolations were one important place where ancient philosophers tried to provide their followers with the spiritual means to maintain their psychic equilibrium, a goal that was especially acute and difficult in situations that were precarious and painful.
In order to obtain this result, they had, on the one hand, to develop and teach their philosophical doctrines, but, on the other hand, they were perfectly conscious of the fact that the simple knowledge of a doctrine, beneficial as it was, did not guarantee its being put into practice. To have learned theoretically that death is not an evil does not suffice to no longer fear it. In order for this truth to be able to penetrate to the depths of one's being, so that it is not believed only for a brief moment, but
Introduction
23
becomes an unshakable conviction, so that it is always "ready," "at hand," "present to mind," so that it is a "habitus of the ,soul" as the Ancients said, one must exercise oneself constantly and without respite
- "night and day," as Cicero said. To this is joined a simple mode of life, in order not to be accustomed to what is superfluous the day it will be necessary to separate oneself from it.
These exercises are certainly exercises of meditation, but they do not only concern reason; in order to be efficacious, they must link the imagination and affectivity to the work of reason, and therefore all the psychagogical means of rhetoric . . . 1.13
Hence we also find recommended, especially by the Stoics, the practice of premeditation on future evils that may occur, and the need to keep present and available in one's memory "all the edifying examples that history, epic poetry and tragedy" entrust to us. •.M
The central place accorded to spiritual exercises in ancient philosophy determines how we should situate and understand the writings of ancient philosophers, their philosophical discourse. The significance and aims of this discourse were conditioned by the ultimate goal of transforming the lives of individuals, of providing them with a philosophical art of living that required nothing less than spiritual metamorphosis. We must not forget that in the philosophy of this period, "theory is never considered an end in itself, it is clearly and decidedly put in the service of practice," a practice so radical and all-encompassing as to make the philosopher atopos, unclassifiable, since he is in love with wisdom, which makes him strange, and foreign to the world of most mortals. us Hadot pointedly captures the relation between philosophical writing, the oral tradition, and an art of living when he writes that ancient philosophy "always endeavored to be more a living voice than writing and still more a life than a voice.'' llh The animated words of the philosopher are at the service of the philosopher's way of life, and his writing is an echo of these words. We might think here of Socrates, of his constant dialogue with himself and others. This dialogue is never closed in on itself, separate and isolated, but is part of, and in service to, Socrates' way of living and way of dying.