The vertical (divine–human) as well as the horizontal (social) dimension of prayer is also expressed in the alternation between speech and silence. Whereas magical formulas are used to coerce the supernatural, liturgical language, even when incomprehensible to the congregation, seeks to lead the participants into an apprehension of the mystery of the divine. In the presence of the mystery of the divine, human beings often discover that they can only stammer or that their speech often falters. When this occurs, they frequently expresses their “fear and love” (Luther) or tremendum et fascinans—i.e., fear and attraction (according to Rudolf Otto, a modern German historian of religion), in apophatic (negative) formulas. Speech with the divine is, in such cases, followed by silence before other people, as one apprehends the inexpressible (i.e., the sacred or holy). Religious language, like silence, thus expresses the distance and inadequacy of the human being in relation to the divine mystery. Types of prayer
Because the various types of prayer are connected and permit a flow from one type to another, it is difficult to conceive of them in terms of rigid classifications. They are enumerated here more on the basis of psychology than on history. Petition
The role of the request in religion has played such a central part that by metonymy (using a word for another expected word) it has given its name to prayer. However contestable this may sometimes be, it is impossible to refuse to recognize the importance of request, whether it be for a material or spiritual gift or accomplishment. The requests that occur most often are for preservation of or return to health, the healing of the sick, long life, material goods, prosperity, or success in one’s undertakings. Request for such goals may be tied to a magical invocation; it may also be a deviation from prayer when it takes the form of a bargain or of a request for payment due: “In payment of our praise, give to the head of the family who is imploring you glory and riches” (from the Rigveda, the earliest of the sacred scriptures of Hinduism). Christianity has never condemned material requests but rather has integrated them into a single providential order while at the same time subordinating them to spiritual values. Thus, in essence though not always in practice, requests are only on the fringe of prayer. As a religion adopts more spiritual goals, the requests become more spirituaclass="underline" in the Choephori, a play written by Aeschylus (a Greek tragic poet of the 6th–5th centuries bce), Electra, the daughter of King Agamemnon, prays, “Grant that I may be a more temperate and a more pious wife than was my mother.” Other examples of the transformation to spiritual goals may be seen in the prayers of the ancient Babylonian and Assyrian kings who asked for the fear of God, rather than material benefits, and that of a priest of the Ewe (a West African people) who even asks of his god “That I remain near you and that you remain near me.” Confession
The term confession expresses at the same time an affirmation of faith and a recognition of the state of sin. In Zoroastrianism, as in ancient Christianity, the confession of faith accompanies the renunciation of demons. The Confessions of St. Augustine also illustrate this dual theme. In a similar fashion, the ancient and primitive recognized that their sins unleash the anger of the gods. To counter the divine wrath, a Ewe, for example, throws a little bundle of twigs—which symbolizes the confessor’s sins—into the air and says words symbolizing the deity’s response, “All your sins are forgiven you.”
The admission of sin cannot be explained only by anguish or by the feeling of guilt; it is also related to what is deepest in humans—i.e., to what constitutes their being and their action (as noted by Karl Jaspers, a 20th-century existentialist philosopher). The awareness of sin is one of the salient features of religion, as, for example, in Hinduism: “Varuna is merciful even to him who has committed sin” (Rigveda). Confession is viewed as the first step toward salvation in both Judaism and Christianity; in Buddhism, monks confess their sins publicly before the Buddha and the sangha (community of monks) two times every month.
Karl Jaspers, 1968.Horst Tappe/Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Situated at the most personal level, sin places a human being directly before God, who alone is able to grant pardon and salvation. The Miserere (“Lord, have mercy,” Psalm 51) of the ancient Israelite king David expresses repentance for sin with an intensity and depth that has a universal value. One of the results of such a dialogue with God is the discovery of the dark depths of sin. Intercession
Members of primitive societies have a clear sense of their solidarity in the framework of the family, the clan, and the tribe. This solidarity is often expressed in intercessory prayer, in which the needs of others are expressed. In such societies, the head of the family prays for the other members of the family, but his prayers also are extended to the whole tribe, especially to its chief; the primitive may pray even for those who are not members of his tribe (e.g., strangers or Europeans).
Intercessory prayers are also significant in Eastern and ancient religions. In the hymns of the Rigveda the father implores the god Agni (god of fire) for all of those who “owe him their lives and are his family.” In the Greek play Alcestis by Euripides (5th century bce), the mother, on her death, entrusts the orphans she is about to leave to Hestia, the goddess of the home. Among the Babylonians and the Assyrians, a priesthood was established primarily to say prayers of intercession.
Agni with characteristic symbol of the ram, wood carving; in the Guimet Museum, ParisGiraudon/Art Resource, New York
Prayers of intercession to the divine are supported by mediatory minor gods or human protectors (alive or dead), marabouts (dervishes, or mystics, believed to have special powers) in Islam, or saints in Christianity, whose mediation ensures that the prayer will be efficacious.
In biblical religion, intercession is spiritualized in view of a consciousness of the messianic (salvatory) mission. Moses views himself as one with his people even when they fail in their duty: “Pardon your people,” he prays, “or remove me from the Book of Life.” Such solidarity finds its supreme form in the prayer of Jesus Christ on the cross—“Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do”—which St. Stephen (the first recorded Christian martyr) and other martyrs repeated in the course of their sufferings. Praise and thanksgiving
Praise, in the prayer of primitive peoples, can be traced to salutations, such as in the prayer of the Hottentots (of South Africa) to the New Moon—“Welcome.” Praise among most of the ancient peoples was expressed in the hymn, which was primarily a prayer of praise (whether ritual or personal) for the gift of the created world. Israel praises its Creator for “his handiwork,” as does the Qurʾān. Contemplation of the majesty of the universe thus often gives rise to a prayer that is not always completely free from pantheism (the divine in all things) and that can be found all the way from the nature hymns of some East and South Asian religions to the effusions of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the 18th-century French moralist, embracing the trees and contemplating the sunrise.