Thus, the present knowledge of Inca society has been derived from a combination of archaeological studies and the written accounts sent to Spain by the early Spanish observers. Some of these accounts reached a wide public: within two years of the fall of the Inca, two quite different versions of what happened at Cajamarca (the place where Pizarro first met and kidnapped the Inca ruler Atahuallpa) were already in print in Europe. One of these was the official version of the Pizarro brothers, while the other criticized their actions. At a time when printing was still a rare skill and censorship was severe, such ample coverage of the invasion is notable.
The first serious study of the Andean peoples was written by Cieza de León, who had reached the Americas as a 14-year-old soldier and had settled in what today is Colombia. A decade or so later he drifted by horse to what is now Peru; he then rode for some 1,300 miles, traveling as far south as the mines at Potosí, in present-day Bolivia. Cieza de León was encouraged by the clergy, many of them partisans and correspondents of the Dominican missionary and historian Bartolomé de Las Casas, to interview both Spanish and Andean participants of the invasion and of the wars that some Andean factions had fought against one another.
The most widely read source during the colonial period was the work of Garcilaso de la Vega, also called El Inca—the son of an Inca royal woman and a Spanish nobleman (whose name the son adopted when he “returned” to his father’s estate in Spain). He lived in Spain nearly 60 years, leading the life of a gentleman, reading, translating love poetry, editing the memoirs of one of the early invaders of Florida, and, finally, writing a vast account of his mother’s ancestors, The Royal Commentaries of the Inca.
Guamán Poma de Ayala (Waman Puma) was one of the few Andean writers whose work is available. He wrote a 1,200-page “letter” to Philip III of Spain, consisting of two books combined into one. The first book was a “new chronicle,” describing Andean achievements and history; the second, much larger part advised the king on how to achieve a “good government.” The second included 400 pages of pen-and-ink drawings, which have remained a major contribution to the modern understanding of Andean society. The manuscript somehow reached the Danish Royal Library in Copenhagen, where it was discovered in 1908 and where it still resides. Settlement in the Cuzco Valley
Several of the modern Andean peoples trace their ancestries to mythical figures who emerged from holes in the ground. These places of origin, or paqarina, were regarded as shrines, where religious ceremonies had to be performed. The Inca paqarina was located at Paqari-tampu (Paccari Tampu), about 15 miles south of Cuzco. There are three caves at Paqari-tampu, and the founders of the Inca dynasty—Manco Capac (Manqo Qhapaq), his three brothers, and his four sisters—supposedly emerged from the middle cave. They assumed leadership over 10 groups of people, or ayllus, that emerged from the caves on either side and led them on a journey lasting an unknown number of years.
During this period the Inca and their followers moved from village to village in search of enough fertile land to sustain themselves. Manco Capac succeeded in disposing of his three brothers. One of his sisters, Mama Ocllo, bore him a son named Sinchi Roca (Zinchi Roq’a). Eventually, the Inca arrived at the fertile area around Cuzco, where they attacked the local residents and drove them from the land. They then established themselves in Cuzco and gradually began to meddle in the affairs of their neighbours, forcing them to pay tribute in order to retain their freedom.
By this time Manco Capac was quite old and close to death. In order to ensure that all he had accomplished would be preserved for posterity, he named his eldest son, Sinchi Roca, to succeed him to the throne. He then directed his next eldest son to shelter and care for all of his other children and their descendants, who composed the Chima panaca. The traditions say little about Sinchi Roca, the second emperor, but apparently he was a peaceful man who made no military campaigns to add lands to the Inca domain. It is not clear whether or not Sinchi Roca married his sister, as his father had done. It is clear, however, that he did not follow his father’s lead in naming his eldest son as his successor, for the third emperor, Lloque Yupanqui (Lloq’e Yupanki), had an older brother. Lloque Yupanqui, like his father, was not warlike and added no lands to the Inca domain.
The demand for additional lands and, more importantly, the resources they could provide first became apparent during the reign of the fourth emperor, Mayta Capac (Mayta Qhapaq). The reasons for the appearance of this need in the 14th century are undoubtedly complex, and any single-factor explanation is probably insufficient. But one possible explanation may lie in the fact that rainfall began to diminish very slightly about this time throughout the central Andes. In an area like the Cuzco Valley, this would imply that some of the marginal farmlands were either abandoned because they could not be watered adequately or were less productive than they had been earlier. Given this situation, if the Inca attempted to maintain their old standard of living, they might have placed some pressure on their food resources. One way of alleviating the problem would have been to acquire additional land and sources of water in an adjacent part of the valley. This is apparently what Mayta Capac did.
Mayta Capac is described in the chronicles as a large, aggressive youth who began fighting with boys from a neighbouring group when he was very young. Pedro de Cieza de León and Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa (who also was one of the more reliable Spanish chroniclers) indicate that the quarrel began because the Inca were taking water from this group, although they differ on the details concerning who actually took the water. By the time Mayta Capac became emperor, this quarrel had grown into a full-scale war, which the Inca won. They looted the homes of their enemies, took some of their lands, and probably imposed some sort of tribute payment on them. The beginnings of external expansion
The fifth emperor, Capac Yupanqui (Qhapaq Yupanki), was appointed ruler by his father before he died. He was apparently not the eldest son but was named emperor because his older brother was considered ugly. Capac Yupanqui was the first Inca ruler to conquer lands outside the Cuzco Valley, although these were only about a dozen miles away. Inca Roca (’Inka Roq’a ’Inka) succeeded his father and subjugated some groups that lived about 12 miles southeast of Cuzco. He is mostly remembered in the chronicles for the fact that he fathered a large number of sons, one of whom, Yahuar Huacac (Yawar Waqaq), was kidnapped by a neighbouring group when he was about eight years old. The boy’s mother, Mama Mikay, was a Huayllaca (Wayllaqa) woman who had been promised to the leader of another group called the Ayarmaca (’Ayarmaka). When the promise was broken and Mama Mikay married Inca Roca, the Ayarmaca went to war with the Huayllaca and were defeating them. As a peace offering, the Huayllaca agreed to deliver Mama Mikay’s son to the Ayarmaca. This tale says a great deal about the way war was waged around the Cuzco Valley at this time; the fact that the Ayarmaca held the boy for several years before returning him to his father suggests that the Inca were no more powerful than several other groups in the area.
Two years before his death, Inca Roca named Yahuar Huacac as the seventh emperor, ensuring a peaceful succession to the throne. Yahuar Huacac was never very healthy and apparently spent most of his time in Cuzco. His brothers Vicaquirao (Wika-k’iraw) and Apo Mayta (’Apu Mayta) were able military leaders and incorporated lands south and east of Cuzco into the Inca domain. Yahuar Huacac’s principal wife was apparently an Ayarmaca, indicating that at that time sister marriage was not the rule (see below Civil war on the eve of the Spanish conquest). She bore him three sons, and he attempted to follow his father’s example by naming her second son as the next emperor; the son was murdered through the intrigues of another of his wives, who wanted her own son named to the throne. The Emperor himself was apparently killed shortly thereafter, and the elders chose Viracocha Inca (Wiraqocha ’Inka) as his successor.