The outstanding Dutch printmaker of the period was Lucas van Leyden (1489/94–1533). If the latter birth date is correct, at age 14 he was already an accomplished engraver. In maturity, he was a superb engraver, in many respects rivalling Dürer. Besides his metal engravings, which are characterized by a very delicate touch, van Leyden designed many woodblocks and also made a few etchings.
A virtuoso of the burin, the Flemish engraver Hendrik Goltzius (1558–1617) developed an incredible variety of cuts and textures to imitate the surface qualities of materials. Other printmakers of the period include Allaert Claesz and Cornelis Matsys. Italy
After the death of Mantegna in 1506, Italian printmaking of the 16th century was dominated by lesser figures. During the 16th century the few etchings produced in Italy have only historical interest.
The most influential engraver of the century was Marcantonio Raimondi. Under the influence of Dürer, Raimondi became a virtuoso engraver; technically Dürer’s equal, he lacked his master’s originality. Raimondi eventually became the engraver of Raphael, organizing a workshop that was dedicated primarily to making reproductions of that master’s work. Thus, Raimondi won the dubious honour of being the first of the many printmakers who ultimately were influential in turning the art of engraving into mere reproduction. He was followed by a whole generation of competent engravers who were devoted solely to reproduction.
One of the exceptions was Giorgio Ghisi of Mantua, who in his isolated regional development escaped the corrupting influence of Rome. His 1550 visit to Antwerp made Ghisi an important link between Italian and northern engraving. France
The only major figure in 16th-century French engraving is Jean Duvet, whose predilection for excessive ornamentation indicates that he was trained as a goldsmith. Although Duvet’s style was influenced by Mantegna, his imagery was completely original. His greatest work, The Apocalypse, reveals a feverish, mystical imagination.
Apart from the work of Duvet, ornamental engraving was the most significant achievement of 16th-century French printmaking. Although these elegant engravings cannot be ranked with the work of the great masters, they represent a genuine expression of the French spirit. The outstanding figure of this school was Étienne Delaune. Although his motifs were influenced by those employed by Raphael for his fresco wall paintings in the Vatican, Delaune nonetheless achieved a personal style. Trends in the late 16th century
By the second half of the 16th century, the quality of printmaking, particularly engraving, had gone into a severe decline. Masters like Dürer and Mantegna were replaced by skilled craftsmen. The trend toward reproduction that had begun with Raimondi gained ground, sapping the vitality of engraving. Yet at the same time, the quantity of production increased. Except for the modern era, this was probably the most prolific period of printmaking. Since it was the beginning of the age of travel, discovery, and religious upheaval, the demand for maps, religious pictures, illustrations, and portraits was enormous.
One after the other, print publishing houses opened all over Europe. Dutch and Flemish families dominated the new profession: in the Netherlands, the firms Cock, Galle, and Passe; in Augsburg, Dominicus Custos; in Antwerp, Brussels, Prague, and Venice, the Sadeler family. In Italy, Antonio Salamanca cornered the market and flooded it with bad reprints of Raimondi engravings.
The publishers of this period usually bought the original plates outright from the artist and issued prints on demand in unlimited quantities. If the plates wore out, they were reworked in the publishers’ own workshops, a practice that was responsible for the destruction of many fine artworks. In many cases, it is no longer possible to identify the creator of the original plate.
In this period, map engravers were particularly important: the maps of Abraham Ortelius were engraved by Franz Hogenberg; Gerardus Mercator engraved his own map designs; and Jodocus Hondius bought the Mercator plates after their use in the edition of 1596 and introduced them in England, along with some of his own work. Printmaking in the 17th century Portrait engraving France
The end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th were dominated by ornamental engravers and illustrators, who were working under Flemish influence; by the middle of the 17th century, however, a distinctly French school of portrait engraving had emerged. Although this school did not produce a major master, it represents a significant phase of European printmaking.
Michael Lesne, a French portraitist whose influence was considerable, worked for a time in the Rubens workshop, later returning to France. Claude Mellan, another major influence, was trained in Rome. Technical virtuosity dominated his prints; for example, the modelling of a face with one continuous spiral.
A superb engraver and a fine draftsman, Robert Nanteuil is considered the undisputed master of French portrait engraving. His style is simple, elegant, and free of the mannerism characteristic of his contemporaries. He and his two rivals—Gerard Edelinck, who was born in Antwerp but studied and developed his style in France, and Antoine Masson, who engraved portraits in the grand style—represented the dominant forces in 17th-century French portrait engraving.
Marin Cureau de la Chambre, engraving by Robert Nanteuil, 1656; in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., Rosenwald Collection, 1943.3.9131
Germany
After the glories of the 15th and 16th centuries, German graphic genius was dormant for nearly three centuries. Historically, Ludwig von Siegen, a minor painter and medalist, is important for his invention of the mezzotint printing method. But the perfecting of this tonal technique increased the reproductive facility of printmaking, thus contributing to the decline of artistic creativity.
Like France, Germany produced a school of portrait engravers; but, although competent technicians, they failed to develop a distinctly national school comparable to the French. Of this group, two are significant: Jeremias Falck, a student of Hondius, and Bartholomäus Kilian, who studied in Paris and later introduced French influence into German printmaking. The Netherlands
Portrait engraving in Holland was on a higher level than in Germany. Cornelis van Dalen was a fine engraver who immigrated to England and died there. More gifted than his father, Cornelis van Dalen II was an artist of considerable stature, who engraved some of the most powerful portraits of his time.
Abraham Blooteling, a pupil of van Dalen II, was also a fine portrait engraver. His major contribution, however, was in the development of the new technique of mezzotint—specifically, the invention of the rocker, the tool used in the technique. He also introduced the mezzotint into England, where it was adopted with such success that it later became known as the “English Manner.” England
In the 17th century, English printmaking produced a portrait engraver of considerable stature, William Faithorne. He studied in France and initially was under the influence of Mellan and Nanteuil; in his late work, however, he developed a style independent of theirs. Faithorne was England’s only major native printmaker during this period, when most prints were reproductive engravings. By the end of the century, engraving was in total decline, replaced by the fashionable mezzotint. Flemish printmaking
One of the dominant figures of European art was Peter Paul Rubens, who was a painter, diplomat, and businessman. Quickly recognizing the commercial potential of printmaking, Rubens organized a graphic workshop where, under his supervision, reproductions of his work were produced. Only one etching, St. Catherine, is considered as his own. The quality of this one print indicates how great was the loss to the art of printmaking that this great draftsman did not make more original etchings.