Although it was part of a broader reformation of the church that originated in the 10th century, the papal reform, or Gregorian Reform, movement, which began with the appointment of Pope Leo IX in 1049, is arguably the most important event in the church’s history. Intended to return the church to its original purity and to abolish simony and clerical marriage, the movement revolutionized the church’s organization, establishing the hierarchical structure headed by the pope that has come to characterize the institution. The movement also emphasized the central role of the priesthood and the sacraments in Christian life and asserted the importance of morally incorrupt clergy. The movement’s efforts to remove lay interference in church affairs laid the foundation for later ideas concerning the separation of church and state. And, although it was late to join, the papacy made reform a truly universal movement that transformed both church and society.
Pope Gregory VII, after his expulsion from Rome, laying a ban of excommunication on the clergy “together with the raging king” (Henry IV of Germany), drawing from the 12th-century chronicle of Otto von Freising; in the library of the University of Jena, Germany.Leonard von Matt/Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The first phase of the Gregorian Reform movement resulted from chaos in Rome. In the mid-1040s three claimants to the throne of St. Peter held sway in central Italy. Two popes were candidates of rival aristocratic families, and the third, though widely respected for his piety, allegedly committed simony to receive his office. To resolve the crisis and to ensure that he would receive the imperial crown from a legitimate pope, the pious Henry III (1017–56) held a council at Sutri in 1046 at which the three popes were deposed and Clement II (reigned 1046–47) was appointed the new pope. Clement and his immediate successors were short-lived popes, however, and ultimately Henry appointed his cousin, Bruno of Toul, who became Pope Leo IX (reigned 1049–54). Leo introduced the spirit of reform as well as a broader conception of papal authority, both of which were dramatically displayed at the Synod of Reims in 1049. Leo, in the presence of the relics of St. Remigius, demanded that the bishops confirm their innocence of simony; those who did not he deposed. Leo established a papal presence north of the Alps in other church councils at which he promoted reform and denounced both simony and clerical marriage.
Leo’s reign was not without setbacks, however. His war with the Normans was a disaster, and his appointment of Humbert of Silva Candida as ambassador to Constantinople led to the Schism of 1054. Despite these setbacks, Leo’s reign was a pivotal one in the history of the church, and his reform legislation set important precedents. He also surrounded himself with like-minded clerics and reformers who transformed the culture of Rome; from Germany he brought Humbert and Frederick of Lorraine (the future pope Stephen IX; reigned 1057–58), and from Italy he recruited Peter Damian (1007–72). Humbert and Damian wrote influential treatises attacking simony and clerical marriage and served the pope as cardinals. Leo’s program was continued by his successors, one of whom, Nicholas II (reigned 1059–61), reformed the process by which the pope was chosen. In the papal election decree of 1059, which was issued during the minority of the German king Henry IV (1050–1106), the right and duty of papal election was assigned to the cardinals, tacitly eliminating the role of the king of Germany even though vague reference to his notification was made. The decree, which was intended to eliminate lay interference in church affairs, reveals the belief held by some at the time that lay appointment, or investiture, of clergy was an act of simony and the cause of the church’s ills. The reign of Gregory VII
Hildebrand, who succeeded in 1073 as Gregory VII (reigned 1073–85), is perhaps best known for his struggle with Henry IV, but he had long served the church, and some scholars regard him as the main force behind papal reform. Indeed, the movement derives its name from his zealous defense of its ideals and his staunch advocacy of papal primacy. Gregory’s actions were shaped more than anything by his devotion to St. Peter and his belief that the pope was Peter’s successor. His legislation mandating clerical celibacy was issued partly because his immediate predecessors had advocated it; he was further motivated by his desire to restore what he perceived as the right order of the world. His efforts to abolish simony and to limit lay interference in the church were motivated by similar concerns. To promote reform, Gregory held councils, issued legislation, called on the bishops and princes of the world to remove simoniac clergy, and even allowed simoniac or unchaste clergy to be rejected by the laity.
Even more directly influential was Gregory’s centralization of the church. This initiative, clearly outlined in the Dictatus papae (“Dictates of the Pope”), a list of 27 short statements (included in his official letter collection), reflected his belief that the pope, as the successor of St. Peter, inherits a commission from Christ to rule over the church. Gregory also believed that the pope is sanctified by the merit of St. Peter and that Rome alone defines the true faith. Through canonical elections, Roman and local synods, the publication of canonical collections and polemical manifestos, his appointment of plenipotentiary legates (representatives with full power to negotiate), and his immediate control of diocesan bishops, Gregory spun a web in which every thread led to Rome. The scattered priests and distant bishops gradually became a distinct class, the clergy, with a law and a loyalty of their own. Although Gregory died a lonely exile, his principles of reform found reception all over Europe, and the new generation of bishops was Gregorian in sympathy and obedient in practice to papal commands in a way unknown to their predecessors. The Investiture Controversy: Gregory VII to Calixtus II
Gregory’s reform activities have been overshadowed by his controversy with Henry IV over the investiture of the clergy. A right and duty of kings and emperors since the time of Charlemagne, lay investiture had become increasingly important to secular rulers who depended on ecclesiastical support for their authority. In ancient canon law, bishops were elected by the clergy and the people, and entrance upon office followed lawful consecration. After royal claims gradually transformed election into royal appointment, admission to office was effected by the bestowal, or investiture, by the lord of ring and staff (symbols of the episcopal office), preceded by an act of homage. This ceremony was highly evocative of simony, both because a layman bestowed a spiritual benefice and because money was often offered or demanded. During the 11th century, lay investiture came under increasing criticism as an act of simony and a violation of the independence of the church. Supporters of the traditional role of the emperor in ecclesiastical elections defended lay investiture by appealing to immemorial practice, which had been accepted and even enjoined by the papacy.