A faint kind of Slavic unity sometimes appeared. In the 19th century, Pan-Slavism developed as a movement among intellectuals, scholars, and poets, but it rarely influenced practical politics. The various Slavic nationalities conducted their policies in accordance with what they regarded as their national interests, and these policies were as often bitterly hostile toward other Slavic peoples as they were friendly toward non-Slavs. Even political unions of the 20th century, such as that of Yugoslavia, were not always matched by feelings of ethnic or cultural accord; nor did the sharing of communism after World War II necessarily provide more than a high-level political and economic alliance.
Pechenegs
▪ people
Byzantine Patzinakoi , Latin Bisseni , Hungarian Besenyo
a seminomadic, apparently Turkic people who occupied the steppes north of the Black Sea (8th–12th century) and by the 10th century were in control of the lands between the Don and lower Danube rivers (after having driven the Hungarians out); they thus became a serious menace to Byzantium. Pastoralists, traders, and mounted warriors originally inhabiting the area between the Volga and Yaik (Ural) rivers, the Pechenegs were attacked by the Khazars and the Oghuz (c. 889). They moved westward (especially as the Khazar state declined and could no longer impede the migration) at Byzantine instigation, driving the Hungarians into the Carpathian Basin and attacking Russian territory.
Kept at bay by the Russians—whose Prince Sriatoslav they killed in battle (972)—and the Hungarians, the Pechenegs repeatedly invaded Thrace (10th century); they increased the frequency and intensity of their raids (11th century) after Byzantium conquered Bulgaria (1018) and thereby became an immediate neighbour of the Pechenegs. In 1090–91 the Pechenegs advanced to the gates of Constantinople (now Istanbul), where Emperor Alexius I with the aid of the Kumans annihilated their army, and another Byzantine victory in 1122 effectively destroyed Pecheneg power. Important Pecheneg settlements were later established in Hungary, probably after their defeat by Byzantium. A key source on Pecheneg history is the De administrando imperii
Vladimir
▪ Russia
city and administrative centre of Vladimir oblast (province), western Russia, situated on the Klyazma River. Vladimir was founded in 1108 by Vladimir II Monomakh, grand prince of Kiev. The community became the centre of a princedom, deriving importance from trade along the Klyazma. In 1157 Prince Andrew Bogolyubsky moved his capital there from Kiev. The city was twice sacked by the Mongols (1238, 1293); on each occasion it rapidly recovered. In 1300 the Orthodox metropolitan was established there, but in 1326 the church authority and in 1328 temporal authority were transferred to Moscow. Thereafter the city, suffering several further Tatar attacks in the 15th century, became a minor local centre, although in 1796 it was made a seat of provincial government.
Post-revolutionary Vladimir grew chiefly on the basis of its textile, machine-building, and chemical industries. The city possesses some superb examples of early Russian architecture. Especially noteworthy among these are the kremlin; the Cathedral of the Assumption, originally built in 1158; the triumphal Golden Gate of 1158, restored under Catherine II the Great; and the Cathedral of St. Dmitry (1197, restored 1835). Pop. (1991 est.) 355,600.
▪ oblast, Russia
oblast (province), western Russia. It is centred on Vladimir city and lies east of Moscow in the basin of the Oka River. The greater part is a low plain, with extensive swamps in the south. The oblast has spruce, pine, and oak, but much of the forest has been cleared. Industries produce textiles, engineering goods, timber goods, and glassware. Agriculture is concentrated chiefly in the northwest, where there is considerable market gardening. Much swampland has been reclaimed. Area 11,200 square miles (29,000 square km). Pop. (1991 est.) 1,659,800.
Rostov
▪ Russia
formerly (12th–17th century) Rostov Veliky
(“Rostov the Great”), city, Yaroslavl oblast (province), northwestern Russia. It lies along Lake Nero and the Moscow-Yaroslavl railway.
First mentioned in the chronicles in 862, Rostov was an outstanding centre of early medieval Russia. In 1207 Rostov became the capital of a princedom, which remained under Tatar rule in the 14th and 15th centuries. In 1474 it came into the possession of Moscow under Dmitry Donskoy. At the end of the 16th century, Rostov grew in importance as a trade centre on the route between Moscow and the White Sea. Surviving buildings in the city include the kremlin, the Cathedral of the Assumption (1230), the 15th-century Terem Palace, and the 17th-century White Palace (Belaya Palata). Modern Rostov maintains a traditional handicraft of enamel on metal. Pop. (1991 est.) 36,400.
Ivan I
▪ Russian prince
in full Ivan Danilovich, byname Ivan Moneybag, Russian Ivan Kalita
born 1304?
died March 31, 1340, Moscow
grand prince of Moscow (1328–40) and grand prince of Vladimir (1331–40) whose policies increased Moscow's power and made it the richest principality in northeastern Russia.
The son of Prince Daniel of Moscow, Ivan succeeded his brother Yury as prince (1325) and then as grand prince (1328) of Moscow. Determined to persuade the Khan of the Golden Horde, the overlord of all the Russian princes, to make him grand prince of Vladimir, he cooperated with the Khan in an expedition against his chief rival, Grand Prince Alexander of Tver, whose subjects had revolted against the Khanate (1327). Despite his efforts, when Alexander was deposed as grand prince, Ivan was not chosen to replace him until 1331; and he was never given authority over the major principalities of Tver, Suzdal, and Ryazan.
Nevertheless, Ivan maintained cordial relations with the Khan; and, while collecting tribute for the Tatars throughout his domain, he acquired a reputation for thrift and financial shrewdness that earned him the nickname Kalita (“Moneybag”). Preferring to expand his realm by purchasing territory rather than conquering it, Ivan enlarged Moscow; he also increased its influence over the neighbouring principalities, and, by forming a close alliance with the metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church, whose seat was transferred to Moscow in 1326, he made Moscow the spiritual centre of the Russian lands.
Suzdal
▪ historical principality, Russia
in full Suzdal Principality, Russian in full Suzdalskoye Knyazhestvo,
medieval principality that occupied the area between the Oka River and the Upper Volga in northeastern Russia. During the 12th to 14th centuries, Suzdal was under the rule of a branch of the Rurik dynasty. As one of the successor regions to Kiev, the principality achieved great political and economic importance, first becoming prominent during the reign of Andrey Bogolyubsky (Andrew I) (1157–74), who conquered Kiev (1169) and transferred the title of “grand prince” from that ancient capital first to Suzdal, then to Vladimir, his new capital on the Klyazma River. He and his brother and successor, Vsevolod III (1176–1212), organized a strong monarchical political system and, as rulers of the Grand Principality of Vladimir, became the most powerful of the Russian princes. They encouraged their subordinate princes to develop the principality and to build churches, palaces, and new cities.