On April 5, 1797 (Old Style), Paul I changed the succession law, establishing a definite order of succession for members of the Romanov family. He was murdered by conspirators supporting his son Alexander I (reigned 1801–25), and the succession following Alexander's death was confused because the rightful heir, Alexander's brother Constantine (Constantine, Veliky Knyaz), secretly declined the throne in favour of another brother, Nicholas I, who ruled from 1825 to 1855. Thereafter the succession followed Paul's rules: Alexander II, 1855–81; Alexander III, 1881–94; and Nicholas II, 1894–1917.
On March 2 (March 15, New Style), 1917, Nicholas II abdicated the throne in favour of his brother Michael, who refused it the following day. Nicholas and all his immediate family were executed in July 1918 at Yekaterinburg.
Raskol
▪ Russian Orthodoxy
(Russian: “Schism”), division in the Russian Orthodox Church in the 17th century over reforms in liturgy and forms of worship. Over the centuries, many features of Russian religious practice had been inadvertently altered by unlettered priests and laity, removing Russian Orthodoxy ever further from its Greek Orthodox parent faith. Reforms intended to remove these idiosyncrasies were instituted under the direction of the autocratic Russian patriarch Nikon between 1652 and 1667. The large group of traditionalists who resisted these changes, denouncing them as the work of the Antichrist, came to be known as Raskolniki (“Schismatics”), or Old Believers (Old Believer). See Old Believer.
Old Believer
▪ Russian religious group
Russian Starover,
member of a group of Russian religious dissenters who refused to accept the liturgical reforms imposed upon the Russian Orthodox church by the patriarch of Moscow Nikon (1652–58). Numbering millions of faithful in the 17th century, the Old Believers split into a number of different sects, of which several survived into modern times.
Patriarch Nikon faced the difficult problem of deciding on an authoritative source for the correction of the liturgical books in use in Russia. These books, used since the conversion of Rus to Christianity in 988, were literal translations from the Greek into Old Slavic. In the course of centuries, manuscript copies of the translations, which were sometimes inaccurate and obscure at the start, were further mutilated by the mistakes of the scribes. Reform was difficult, for there was no agreement as to where the “ideal” or “original” text was to be found. The option taken by Patriarch Nikon was to follow exactly the texts and practices of the Greek Church as they existed in 1652, the beginning of his reign, and to this effect he ordered the printing of new liturgical books following the Greek pattern. His decree also required the adoption in Russia of Greek usages, Greek forms of clerical dress, and a change in the manner of crossing oneself: three fingers were to be used instead of two. The reform, obligatory for all, was considered “necessary for salvation” and was supported by Tsar Alexis Romanov.
Opposition to Nikon's reforms was led by a group of Muscovite priests, notably the archpriest Avvakum Petrovich. Even after the deposition of Nikon (1658), who broached too strong a challenge to the Tsar's authority, a series of church councils culminating in that of 1666–67 officially endorsed the liturgical reforms and anathematized the dissenters. Several of them, including Avvakum, were executed.
The dissenters, sometimes called Raskolniki, were most numerous in the inaccessible regions of northern and eastern Russia (but later also in Moscow itself) and were important in the colonization of these remote areas. Opposed to all change, they strongly resisted the Western innovations introduced by Peter I, whom they regarded as Antichrist. Having no episcopal hierarchy, they split into two groups. One group, the Popovtsy (priestly sects), sought to attract ordained priests and were able to set up an episcopate in the 19th century. The other, the Bezpopovtsy (priestless sects), renounced priests and all sacraments, except Baptism. Many other sects developed out of these groups, some with practices considered extravagant.
The Old Believers benefitted from the edict of toleration (April 17, 1905), and most groups survived the Russian Revolution of 1917. Numerous branches of both the Popovtsy and the Bezpopovtsy succeeded in becoming registered and thus officially recognized by the Soviet state. The membership of one Moscow-centred Popovtsy group, the convention of Belaya Krinitsa, was estimated in the early 1970s at 800,000. Little is known, however, of the Old Believer settlements supposed to exist in Siberia, the Urals, Kazakhstan, and the Altai. Some groups exist elsewhere in Asia and in Brazil and the United States.
In 1971 the Council of the Russian Orthodox Church completely rescinded all the anathemas of the 17th century and recognized the full validity of the old rites.
Avvakum Petrovich
▪ Russian priest
born 1620/1621, Grigorovo, Russia
died April 14, 1682, Pustozersk
archpriest, leader of the Old Believers (Old Believer), conservative clergy who brought on one of the most serious crises in the history of the Russian church by separating from the Russian Orthodox church to support the “old rite,” consisting of many purely local Russian developments. He is also considered to be a pioneer of modern Russian literature.
In 1652 he went to Moscow and joined in the struggle against Patriarch Nikon, whose high-handed methods and brutal treatment of dissidents made unpopular his reforms of adopting Greek Orthodox church customs in an effort to unite the entire Orthodox church. Under Nikon's regime, Old Believers were excommunicated and severely persecuted. Avvakum himself was twice banished and finally imprisoned. It was during his imprisonment in Pustozersk that he wrote most of his works, the greatest of which is considered to be his Zhitiye (“Life”), the first Russian autobiography. Distinguished for its lively description and for its original, colourful style, the Zhitiye is one of the great works of early Russian literature. A council of 1682 against the Old Believers condemned Avvakum to be burned at the stake, and the sentence was carried out.
Fyodor III
▪ tsar of Russia
in full Fyodor Alekseyevich
born May 30 [June 9, New Style], 1661, Moscow, Russia
died April 27 [May 7], 1682, Moscow
tsar of Russia (reigned 1676–82) who fostered the development of Western culture in Russia, thereby making it easier for his successor, Peter I the Great (reigned 1682–1725), to enact widespread reforms based on Western models.
The eldest son of Alexis (reigned 1645–76), Fyodor not only was educated in the traditional subjects of Russian and Church Slavonic but also was tutored in Polish and Latin by Simeon Polotsky, a noted theologian who had studied in Kiev and Poland. When Alexis died, Fyodor ascended the throne (Jan. 19 [Jan. 29], 1676), but his youth and poor health prevented him from actively participating in the conduct of government affairs. His uncle Ivan B. Miloslavsky assumed the dominant position in Fyodor's government at first, but he was soon displaced by two courtiers, I.M. Yazykov and A.T. Likhachev, who shared Fyodor's educational background and who, in spite of objections from the Russian Orthodox clergy, promoted the spread of Polish customs, Roman Catholic religious doctrines, and Latin books among the Russian aristocracy. After 1681 Vasily V. Golitsyn (Golitsyn, Vasily Vasilyevich, Knyaz) became the most significant figure in Fyodor's administration; under his influence vast military reforms were undertaken, and the system of mestnichestvo, by which a noble was appointed to a service position on the basis of his family's rank in the hierarchy of boyars, was abolished (1682).