Works about Catherine II and her reign.
V.A. Bilbassov, Geschichte Katharina II, 3 vol. (1891–93; also published in French as Histoire de Catherine II, 1900), is the most important work written about Catherine II, with quotations from many documents of the period; the last volume was banned in Russia under the tsarist regime. Ian Grey, Catherine the Great: Autocrat and Empress of All Russia (1961), a remarkable work, is a penetrating analysis of Catherine's character and notably of her relationships with Potemkin. Olga Wormser, Catherine II (1957; in French), is particularly interesting for its analysis of the social and cultural situation in Russia. Z. Oldenbourg, Catherine de Russie
empress of Russia
Russian in full Yelizaveta Petrovna
born Dec. 18 [Dec. 29, New Style], 1709, Kolomenskoye, near Moscow, Russia
died Dec. 25, 1761, [Jan. 5, 1762], St. Petersburg
empress of Russia from 1741 to 1761 (1762, New Style).
The daughter of Peter I the Great (reigned 1682–1725) and Catherine I (reigned 1725–27), Elizabeth grew up to be a beautiful, charming, intelligent, and vivacious young woman. Despite her talents and popularity, particularly among the guards, she played only a minor political role during the reigns of Peter II (reigned 1727–30) and Empress Anna (reigned 1730–40). But when Anna Leopoldovna assumed the regency for her son Ivan VI (1740–41) and threatened Elizabeth with banishment to a convent, the young princess allowed herself to be influenced by the French ambassador and members of the Russian court who hoped to reduce German domination over Russian affairs and reverse Russia's pro-Austrian, anti-French foreign policy. On the night of Nov. 24–25 (Dec. 5–6), 1741, she staged a coup d'état, arresting the infant emperor, his mother, and their chief advisers; after summoning all the civil and ecclesiastical notables of St. Petersburg, Elizabeth was proclaimed empress of Russia.
Upon ascending the throne, Elizabeth abolished the Cabinet council system of government that had been employed by her predecessors and formally reconstituted the Senate as it had been created by her father. As a result of this and similar measures, her reign has been generally characterized as a return to the principles and traditions of Peter the Great (Peter I). In fact, Elizabeth's restoration of the Senate as the chief governing body was only nominal (the country really being ruled by her private chancery), and the empress actually abolished some of her father's major reforms. Furthermore, rather than assume a dominant role in government as Peter had done, Elizabeth occupied herself with splendid court and church activities and the purchase of stylish Western clothing. She also encouraged the development of education and art, founding Russia's first university (in Moscow) and the Academy of Arts (in St. Petersburg) and building the extravagant Winter Palace (also in St. Petersburg). She left control of most state affairs to her advisers and favourites, under whose leadership the effectiveness of Russia's government was handicapped by continual court intrigues; the country's financial situation deteriorated; and the gentry acquired broad privileges at the expense of the peasantry.
Simultaneously, however, Russia's prestige as a major European power grew. Guided by Aleksey Bestuzhev-Ryumin, who enjoyed Elizabeth's complete confidence, the country firmly adhered to a pro-Austrian, anti-Prussian foreign policy, annexed a portion of southern Finland after fighting a war with Sweden (1741–43), improved its relations with Great Britain, and successfully conducted hostilities against Prussia during the Seven Years' War (1756–63).
Before Russia and its allies, France and Austria, could force Prussia's collapse, however, Elizabeth died, leaving her throne to her nephew Peter III, who was a great admirer of Frederick II the Great of Prussia and who withdrew Russia from the war.
Orlov, Grigory Grigoryevich, Graf
▪ Russian military officer
born Oct. 17 [Oct. 6, Old Style], 1734, Lyutkino, Tver Province, Russia
died April 24 [April 13], 1783, Neskuchnoye, near Moscow
military officer and lover of Catherine II, empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796. He organized the coup d'état that placed Catherine on the Russian throne and subsequently was her close adviser.
Having entered the cadet corps in 1749, Orlov became an artillery officer and fought in the Battle of Zorndorf (1758) during the Seven Years' War (1756–63). In 1759, after escorting a Prussian prisoner of war to St. Petersburg, he was introduced to the grand duke Peter and his wife, Catherine. Leading a riotous life in the capital, Orlov caught Catherine's fancy, and around 1760 he became her lover.
After Peter ascended the Russian throne (1762) as Peter III, Orlov and his brother Aleksey Grigoryevich planned the coup d'état of July 1762 that overthrew Peter and made Catherine Russia's empress. Catherine then gave her lover the title of count, promoted him to the rank of adjutant general, and made him director-general of engineers and general in chief, but her political mentor, Nikita Panin, frustrated her intention of marrying Orlov. Grigory then began to study natural science and was one of the founders of the Free Economic Society (1765), which was organized to modernize the country's agricultural system.
While Catherine was composing her “Instruction” for the legislative commission that was to devise liberal government reforms and formulate a new legal code, Orlov acted as her consultant, and later, when he was a member of the commission (1767–68), he strongly urged the passage of reforms that would improve the condition of the serfs. The commission, however, adjourned without making any substantial proposals. In 1772 Catherine sent Orlov as her chief delegate to a peace conference to end the Russo-Turkish War that had begun in 1768, but he advocated the liberation of Christian subjects from Turkish rule, as well as the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire, and thereby failed in his mission; peace was not concluded until 1774.
Around 1772 Orlov also ceased to be Catherine's lover; he subsequently left Russia (1775) and married a cousin (1777). After his wife's death (1782) he lost his sanity and returned to his estate in Russia.
Catherine the Great, Instruction of
▪ Russian political doctrine
Russian Nakaz Yekateriny Velikoy
(Aug. 10 [July 30, old style], 1767), in Russian history, document prepared by Empress Catherine II that recommended liberal, humanitarian political theories for use as the basis of government reform and the formulation of a new legal code. The Instruction was written as a guide for a legislative commission that was intended to consider internal reforms and to devise a new code of laws.
The Instruction generally favoured the creation of a society of free individuals acting in accordance with the law. It maintained that all men should be considered equal before the law; that law should protect the populace, not oppress it; and that law should forbid only acts directly harmful to an individual or the community, leaving the people free to do anything not forbidden. It disapproved of capital punishment, torture, and the perpetuation of serfdom. But it also upheld the principle of absolutism in government, insisting that all political power was derived from the autocrat, who was subject to no law.