In 1813 a Commission for the Construction of the City of Moscow was established. It launched a great program of rebuilding, which included a partial replanning of the city centre. Among many buildings constructed or reconstructed at this time were the Great Kremlin and Armoury palaces, the university, the Manezh (Riding School), and the Bolshoi Theatre. Industry also recovered rapidly and continued to develop through the 19th century. In 1837 the Moscow stock exchange was established. The emancipation of the serfs in 1861 and the beginning of the railway era with the opening of the line to St. Petersburg in 1851 greatly increased labour mobility, and large numbers of peasants from the villages began moving into Moscow. The population, which had reached 336,000 in 1835, had almost doubled, to 602,000, in 1871 and by 1897 had reached 978,000. Moscow became the hub of Russia's railways, with trunk lines to all parts of European Russia. A ring of main line termini was built, mostly on or near the Kamer-Kollezhsky barrier at the limits of the built-up area. Outside the barrier many new factories, particularly those concerned with textiles, began operation. In the 1890s heavy engineering and metalworking industries also developed. Between 1897 and 1915 Moscow yet again doubled in size, to a population of 1,983,700.
The later 19th century was a period of ostentatious building by public bodies and wealthy private persons, in various imitative “Old Russian” styles and the so-called modern style. From this period date the Town Hall (meeting place of the Gorodskaya Duma, former site of the Central Lenin Museum), the State Historical Museum, and the Upper Trading Rows (now GUM).
The growth of an industrial proletariat in Moscow, together with the generally low living standards of the workers, brought unrest and strikes. Various revolutionary groups were active. In the Revolution of 1905 (Russian Revolution of 1905) a small-scale insurrection took place in Moscow, and an attempt was made to seize the Nikolayev (now St. Petersburg) station; the revolt was ruthlessly crushed. In 1917, although a Council of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies was set up in Moscow, the city remained relatively quiet until after the Bolshevik seizure of power in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) on October 25 (November 7, New Style), which was immediately followed by fighting in Moscow. Military cadets held out for a time in the Kremlin, but by November 3 (November 16, New Style) they were overcome and Bolshevik power was firmly established.
Nicholas II
▪ pope
original name Gerard of Burgundy , French Gérard de Bourgogne
born Burgundy
died August 27, 1061, Florence [Italy]
pope from 1059 to 1061, a major figure in the Gregorian Reform.
Born in a region near Cluny, Gerard was most likely exposed to the reformist zeal of the monastery there. As bishop of Florence from 1045, he imposed the canonical life on the priests of his diocese. His efforts at reform were first steps toward the more dramatic legislation he would implement as pope.
His election as pope was a complicated affair that revealed the challenges facing the papacy. When Pope Stephen IX (Stephen IX (or X)) (or X; 1057–58) fell ill, he requested that no election of a successor be held until his legate Hildebrand (later Pope Gregory VII (Gregory VII, Saint)) returned from Germany. At Stephen's death, however, the powerful Tusculani family orchestrated the election of John Mincius, bishop of Velletri, as Benedict X (Benedict (X)), though only two cardinals participated in the voting; the other cardinals, including Peter Damian (Peter Damian, Saint), had left Rome for Florence. Damian's departure was most damaging to Benedict's succession because, as bishop of Ostia, Damian was responsible for consecrating the new pope. In Siena the cardinals, under the influence of Hildebrand, elected Gerard pope in December 1058. The king in Germany, Henry IV, and Duke Godfrey of Lorraine, the leading power in northern Italy and brother of Stephen IX, were notified of the election, and Gerard gained their support as a result. He was escorted to Rome by Godfrey and the German chancellor for Italy, Wibert of Ravenna (later antipope Clement [III]). On the way to Rome, Gerard convened a council at Sutri that declared Benedict deposed; Benedict fled Rome, and Gerard assumed the papal throne as Nicholas II on January 24, 1059.
Nicholas faced a number of problems, including issues raised by the irregularity of his own election. At his first council, held in the Lateran at Easter in 1059, Nicholas issued a decree on papal elections, which was intended to prevent interference by the nobility and to regularize the succession. He assigned a leading role to the seven cardinal bishops, who were to choose a suitable candidate and then summon the other cardinals. The remaining clergy and the people of Rome were to acclaim the choice; the right of the emperor to confirm the election was recognized, though it was not accepted as hereditary and had to be confirmed by the pope when the new emperor took the throne. Although the decree caused tension between Rome and the German court, which circulated its own version, Nicholas's reform was an important step toward establishing the independence of the church.
At the Lateran synod Nicholas also promoted the reform agenda initiated by Leo IX (Leo IX, Saint) in 1049. The council prohibited simony and lay investiture, declaring that no priest or cleric could accept a church from a layman. Nicholas and the council also forbade clerical marriage and concubinage; masses celebrated by priests with wives or mistresses were to be boycotted, and married priests were not to perform the mass or hold church benefices. Supporting the goals of the Gregorian Reform movement, the synod also extended papal protection to the persons and property of pilgrims and gave papal sanction to the Peace of God (God, Peace of) and Truce of God (God, Truce of) movements, which promoted religious reform and sought to restrict warfare and protect clerics and other noncombatants in times of war. It was also at the council that Berengar Of Tours was forced to renounce his teachings on the Eucharist.
The Lateran council was only one of Nicholas's achievements as pope. He sent legates to resolve the crisis in Milan brought about by the Patarine movement, which had challenged the established social order, clerical corruption, and the practice of clerical marriage. Of even greater consequence was his revolutionary decision to forge an alliance with the Normans in southern Italy. At the council of Melfi in August 1059, Nicholas invested Robert Guiscard (Robert) as duke of Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily and Richard of Aversa as prince of Capua, making them vassals of Rome. Both princes swore an oath of fealty to the pope and promised aid. Robert also swore to help Nicholas regain control of papal territories, to preserve Nicholas in office, and to aid the cardinals in future papal elections. Nicholas derived great benefit from the alliance; the Normans even captured Benedict and presented him to the pope in 1060.
The alliance with the Normans led to tensions with the German ruler, whose claims to Italian territory and traditional right to protect the pope were undermined. Shortly before the pope's death in 1061, the German bishops declared all Nicholas's decrees void and broke off relations with Rome. The break may have been precipitated by the Norman alliance, by Nicholas's restatement of the prohibitions against simony and clerical marriage, or by conflict with the archbishop of Cologne; the exact cause remains uncertain, but the cooling of relations would have serious consequences. Nicholas's short but eventful reign left a profound mark on the medieval church and papacy.
Michael Frassetto
▪ tsar of Russia
Introduction
Russian in full Nikolay Aleksandrovich