The government financed the war by raising taxes and foreign loans and by massively increasing the amount of paper currency in circulation. The £ result was a vast increase in government debt and rising inflation. Prices g tripled between 1914 and 1916, while wages doubled. Industrialists e made record profits, while workers struggled to make ends meet. By jg 1916 the intensity of industrial strikes again approached the level of the 1 pre-war period; in January-February 1917 more workers participated in political strikes than in 1913. By the winter, the cities were facing an acute food shortage in a country glutted with food. Asked in January 1917 by Sir George Buchanan, the British Ambassador, how he proposed to regain his subjects' confidence, Nicholas retorted: 'Do you mean that I am to regain the confidence of my people, or that they are to regain mine?'
The meanings of the revolution
The February Revolution gave rise to a short-lived mood of national unity and optimism. Liberty and democracy were the order of the day. Overnight everyone was transformed from a subject into a citizen, all agreeing that they must organize in order to realize their freedom. The extraordinary euphoria of public life was captured byV. I. Lenin's wife,
14
2. A political demonstration in Petrograd, 1917
Nade2da Krupskaia, upon her return to Russia in early Apriclass="underline" 'Everywhere people stood about in knots, arguing heatedly and discussing the latest events. Discussion that nothing could interrupt!' Yet from the first, the scope of the revolution was in dispute. For the reluctant revolutionaries of the Provisional Government the overthrow of the tsar was an act of national self-preservation driven by the need to bring victory in war. For the lower classes, liberty and democracy meant nothing short of a social revolution that would bring about the complete destruction of the old structure of authority and the construction of a new way of life in accordance with their ideas of justice and freedom. It was only a matter of time before the social contradictions masked by the common political language would become exposed.
Nine million soldiers and sailors hailed the downfall of the tsar, seeing the revolution as a signal to overthrow the oppressive command structure in the armed forces. Tyrannical officers were removed and sometimes lynched (about 50 officers were murdered by the sailors of
Kronstadt). Insisting that they were citizens of a free Russia, soldiers demanded the right to form committees from the company level upwards to represent their interests. This demand was conceded by the Petrograd Soviet on 1 March, when it passed Order No. 1, the most radical act it ever carried out. General M. V. Alekseev condemned it as 'the means by which the army I command will be destroyed'. Yet the committees were dominated by more educated elements who had little intention of sabotaging the operational effectiveness of the army. In spring at least, democratization did not mean the disintegration of the army as a fighting force. The mood of the soldiers was characterized by Lenin as one of 'revolutionary defencism', by which he meant that soldiers would only fight to defend the gains of the revolution against Austro-Cerman militarism. Hopes for a rapid peace settlement, however, ran high and no one could be confident that the army would continue to fight indefinitely. In particular, it was not clear that the army £ would go on the attack.
о
I
e Industrial workers were the most organized and strategically jg positioned of all social groups in 1917. Upon their return to work, 1 following the end of the general strike, they, too, set about dismantling 'autocracy' on the shop floor. Hated foremen and administrators were driven out, the old rule books were torn up, and factory committees were formed, especially among the skilled metalworkers, to represent workers' interests to management. Everywhere they demanded an eight-hour working day and wage rises to compensate for wartime inflation, both demands conceded with considerable reluctance by employers. The factory committees took on a wide range of functions, including guarding factory property, overseeing hiring and firing, labour discipline, and organizing food supplies. By October two-thirds of enterprises with 200 or more workers had such committees. Had economic and political conditions been more favourable, it is possible that they might have become part of a corporatist system of industrial relations, taking joint responsibility with employers for production. Meanwhile more slowly, trade unions
16
also revived, taking particular responsibility for wage negotiations. By October they had over 2 million members, organized by industry rather than craft.
The Soviets were the principal organ of political expression for the workers and soldiers. Some 700 Soviets sprang up in March and April, embracing around 200,000 deputies by summer. By October there were 1,429 Soviets, of which 455 were Soviets of peasants' deputies. Peasant Soviets, however, did not really get off the ground until the end of 1917. Soviets saw themselves as organs of the 'revolutionary democracy' - a bloc comprising workers, soldiers, and peasants, and occasionally stretching (as in Omsk) to include representatives of ethnic minorities and even teachers, journalists, lawyers, and doctors. Their basic principle was that they were directly elected by those they represented and directly accountable to them. During the spring and summer, the moderate socialists, the Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), were the leading force in the Soviets, because their brand of inclusive politics was most in tune with the popular mood. The moderate socialists saw the function of the Soviets as being to exercise 'control' over local government in the interests of the revolutionary democracy; but in practice many local Soviets quickly took on administrative responsibilities in matters as various as food and fuel supply, education and culture, and law and order. At the beginning of June at the First All-Russia n Congress of Soviets, out of 777 delegates, 285 were SRs and 24S were Mensheviks. The Congress brought into being a national soviet centre, the Central Executive Committee (CEC), controlled by Mensheviks and SRs, that became a bastion of support for the Provisional Government.
The peasants too responded warmly to the February Revolution. Few mourned the passing of the Romanov dynasty and thousands of resolutions were passed by village communities, applauding the fact that peasants were now citizens and demanding that the social order be reconstructed on the basis of democracy, justice, and equality. Peasant
3. Who Has Forgotten His Debt to His Motherland? Merchants address this 2 question to a downcast soldier. The inscription reads 'Little is given, much 5 is exacted.'
S
§ resolutions expressed hope that the war would soon be over, but their .2 principal aspiration was to redress the wrong done to them in 1861 by redistributing the gentry's estates. Although there were only about юо.ооо landlord families by 1917, few countries in the world still had estates as large as those in Russia. In the eyes of the peasants, the gentry had no right to these estates since they did not work them. In the moral universe of the peasantry it was an article of faith that only those who made the land productive had a right to it. In one of Tolstoy's fables, the peasants of a village judge strangers by the state of their hands: only if their palms are calloused will they take them in.