Metamorphic rocks result from changes brought about in the structure of sedimentary and igneous rocks by extreme pressure or heat. The most well-known metamorphic rocks used in sculpture are the marbles, which are recrystallized limestones. Italian Carrara marble, the best known, was used by Roman and Renaissance sculptors, especially Michelangelo, and is still widely used. The best-known varieties used by Greek sculptors, with whom marble was more popular than any other stone, are Pentelic—from which the Parthenon and its sculpture are made—and Parian.
Because stone is extremely heavy and lacks tensile strength, it is easily fractured if carved too thinly and not properly supported. A massive treatment without vulnerable projections, as in Egyptian and pre-Columbian American Indian sculpture, is therefore usually preferred. Some stones, however, can be treated more freely and openly; marble in particular has been treated by some European sculptors with almost the same freedom as bronze, but such displays of virtuosity are achieved by overcoming rather than submitting to the properties of the material itself.
The colours and textures of stone are among its most delightful properties. Some stones are fine-grained and can be carved with delicate detail and finished with a high polish; others are coarse-grained and demand a broader treatment. Pure white Carrara marble, which has a translucent quality, seems to glow and responds to light in a delicate, subtle manner. (These properties of marble were brilliantly exploited by 15th-century Italian sculptors such as Donatello and Desiderio da Settignano.) The colouring of granite is not uniform but has a salt-and-pepper quality and may glint with mica and quartz crystals. It may be predominantly black or white or a variety of grays, pinks, and reds. Sandstones vary in texture and are often warmly coloured in a range of buffs, pinks, and reds. Limestones vary greatly in colour, and the presence of fossils may add to the interest of their surfaces. A number of stones are richly variegated in colour by the irregular veining that runs through them.
Jade horse head, Chinese, Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce). In the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Height 19 cm.Courtesy of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London
jade sculptureMandarin duck with scrolls, Chinese abraded jade sculpture from the Yuan or early Ming dynasty (about 1279–1450); in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Paul E. Manheim (M.67.72.12), www.lacma.org Hardstones, or semiprecious stones, constitute a special group, which includes some of the most beautiful and decorative of all substances. The working of these stones, along with the working of more precious gemstones, is usually considered as part of the glyptic (gem carving or engraving), or lapidary, arts, but many artifacts produced from them can be considered small-scale sculpture. They are often harder to work than steel. First among the hardstones used for sculpture is jade, which was venerated by the ancient Chinese, who worked it, together with other hardstones, with extreme skill. It was also used sculpturally by Maya and Mexican artists. Other important hardstones are rock crystal, rose quartz, amethyst, agate, and jasper.
The principal material of tribal sculpture in Africa, Oceania, and North America, wood has also been used by every great civilization; it was used extensively during the Middle Ages, for example, especially in Germany and central Europe. Among modern sculptors who have used wood for important works are Ernst Barlach, Ossip Zadkine, and Henry Moore.
Both hardwoods and softwoods are used for sculpture. Some are close-grained, and they cut like cheese; others are open-grained and stringy. The fibrous structure of wood gives it considerable tensile strength, so that it may be carved thinly and with greater freedom than stone. For large or complex open compositions, a number of pieces of wood may be jointed. Wood is used mainly for indoor sculpture, for it is not as tough or durable as stone; changes of humidity and temperature may cause it to split, and it is subject to attack by insects and fungus. The grain of wood is one of its most attractive features, giving variety of pattern and texture to its surfaces. Its colours, too, are subtle and varied. In general, wood has a warmth that stone does not have, but it lacks the massive dignity and weight of stone.
The principal woods for sculpture are oak, mahogany, limewood, walnut, elm, pine, cedar, boxwood, pear, and ebony; but many others are also used. The sizes of wood available are limited by the sizes of trees; North American Indians, for example, could carve gigantic totem poles in pine, but boxwood is available only in small pieces.
In the 20th century, wood was used by many sculptors as a medium for construction as well as for carving. Laminated timbers, chipboards, and timber in block and plank form can be glued, jointed, screwed, or bolted together, and given a variety of finishes.
Wherever metal technologies have been developed, metals have been used for sculpture. The amount of metal sculpture that has survived from the ancient world does not properly reflect the extent to which it was used, for vast quantities have been plundered and melted down. Countless Far Eastern and Greek metal sculptures have been lost in this way, as has almost all the goldwork of pre-Columbian American Indians.
The metal most used for sculpture is bronze, which is basically an alloy of copper and tin; but gold, silver, aluminum, copper, brass, lead, and iron have also been widely used. Most metals are extremely strong, hard, and durable, with a tensile strength that permits a much greater freedom of design than is possible in either stone or wood. A life-size bronze figure that is firmly attached to a base needs no support other than its own feet and may even be poised on one foot. Considerable attenuation of form is also possible without risk of fracture.
The colour, brilliant lustre, and reflectivity of metal surfaces have been highly valued and made full use of in sculpture although, since the Renaissance, artificial patinas have generally been preferred as finishes for bronze.
Metals can be worked in a variety of ways in order to produce sculpture. They can be cast—that is, melted and poured into molds; squeezed under pressure into dies, as in coin making; or worked directly—for example, by hammering, bending, cutting, welding, and repoussé (hammered or pressed in relief).
Important traditions of bronze sculpture are Greek, Roman, Indian (especially Chola), African (Bini and Yoruba), Italian Renaissance, and Chinese. Gold was used to great effect for small-scale works in pre-Columbian America and medieval Europe. A fairly recent discovery, aluminum has been used a great deal by modern sculptors. Iron has not been used much as a casting material, but in recent years it has become a popular material for direct working by techniques similar to those of the blacksmith. Sheet metal is one of the principal materials used nowadays for constructional sculpture. Stainless steel in sheet form has been used effectively by the American sculptor David Smith.
Clay is one of the most common and easily obtainable of all materials. Used for modeling animal and human figures long before men discovered how to fire pots, it has been one of the sculptor’s chief materials ever since.
Clay has four properties that account for its widespread use: when moist, it is one of the most plastic of all substances, easily modeled and capable of registering the most detailed impressions; when partially dried out to a leather-hard state or completely dried, it can be carved and scraped; when mixed with enough water, it becomes a creamy liquid known as slip, which may be poured into molds and allowed to dry; when fired to temperatures of between 700 and 1,400 °C (1,300 and 2,600 °F), it undergoes irreversible structural changes that make it permanently hard and extremely durable.