With the Indians subdued, the government started moving them onto reservations. But the conflicts between whites and Indians continued: Treaties were made and treaties were broken; Indian wars erupted on the plains. It was a clash of economies as well as a clash of ideologies. Indians believed the land was the sacred giver of life and that it belonged to all, that no one person could own it. The white man had a different perspective. He looked upon the vast open spaces as so much real estate to be bought and sold and saw the land as the raw material for building an expanding nation.
By the late 1880s, the buffalo were gone and the Indians' way of life had vanished. Required to live on reservations to qualify for rations, the Indians' only other choice was to leave and face starvation. They were dependent on the government for food and housing. The brave warriors and mounted hunters that had ruled the Great Plains were now on welfare, their spirits broken.
In the midst of this bleak scenario, a ray of hope shone through. A prophet appeared. A young Paiute Indian from Nevada promised the return of old ways in which there would be no white men, the great buffalo herds would return to the plains, and all Indiansliving and deadwould exist together peacefully. All the Indians had to do was pray and dance in the slow, sedate style the new messiah had seen in his vision.
The ceremony became known as the "Ghost Dance" because it was said that the dead would come back to life. This religious movement quickly gained momentum as it spread from reservation to reservation throughout the plains, uniting many different tribes. Fearful of uprisings, the U.S. government outlawed the Ghost Dance. Its adherents continued the practice in secret, in remote corners of reservations away from the eyes of the Indian agents who watched over them. Efforts to stop the movement failed, until it ended in tragedy at Wounded Knee, where more than 150 Sioux men, women, and children were massacred on the South Dakota plains. The year was 1890.
In the decades that followed, many traditional Indian ways were lost through assimilation as the government attempted to force Indians to conform to white society. Indian schoolchildren were not allowed to speak their native tongue in reservation schools. The government tried to eradicate native religion and prohibited traditional ceremonies. The Sun Dance, the most holy of Plains Indian rituals, was declared illegal in many states. Elders tried to keep the old ways alive, but often the younger generations were not interested, choosing instead to become modern Americans and leave their people's traditions behind.
Many Indians converted to Christianity, taught by missionaries in reservation churches and schools. But often what evolved were hybrid religious concepts, blending the Native American belief that all things are sacred with the acceptance of Christian tenets. Indian spirituality had always embraced the old and the new in a continually evolving view of the world. Even traditional stories were open to new interpretations.
The story of the White Buffalo Woman ends with the maiden turning into a buffalo and then changing color four times, from black to brown to red, and finally to white. A hundred years ago, these colors might have been said to symbolize the four directions or the four seasons of the year. Today there are elders who interpret this aspect of the story as representing the four colors of humankind. This modern interpretation is not surprising in an age when peoples all over the world are linked via global economies and technologies.
The story of the White Buffalo Woman did not die out. So important was this myth that it endured while other Indian legends did not. Does the birth of a female white calf signify a return to the power of the buffalo? A century after the Plains Indians were crushed by a more forceful civilization, Indian nations are now regaining their rights and are growing in political and economic power. This resurgence is evident in many arenas.
Within the legal system, there has been an impressive string of successes as tribes throughout North America have won court cases to reinstateor be compensated fortribal lands taken when treaties were broken. Indians have regained access to their sacred lands, as well as to fishing and hunting rights. With the passage of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, native peoples are reclaiming holy objects as well as human remains that were taken without their consent.
New economic development can also be seen on many reservations. The introduction of casino gambling, for better or worse, has pumped incredible amounts of money into tribal coffers. Establishing tribal bison herds is another step toward economic self-sufficiency, a move aided by the Inter-Tribal Bison Cooperative. Native American corporations are now major players in determining how the natural resources within their lands are to be used, and they are increasingly setting the terms for fair remuneration for access to these natural resources. With new legal power and the financial resources to back it up, many tribes across the country are moving into a new era of prosperity.
Even among tribes still caught in a web of poverty (unemployment on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota hovers around a staggering 75 percent), there is renewed interest in traditional ways. High school and elementary school students can now study the Lakota language, and elective courses offer classes in Sioux history and culture. Youngsters join clubs to learn traditional music and dances, and they participate with pride in tribal powwows.
Is the birth of the white buffalo the symbol or the cause of this resurgence? Or is it just a coincidence? To a large extent, it depends on whom you ask. But there is more to be considered here. Just as the buffalo in the story of the White Buffalo Woman changed color four times, so too has Miracle, the white calf born on the Heiders' farm. Coincidence? Or prophecy?
A century ago, the Ghost Dance united Indian tribes in the hope of a better future; today, Miracle seems to have inspired a similar sentiment, but now on a global scale. People from around the world have traveled to Janesville, Wisconsin, to see the buffalo calfIndians and non-Indians alike. The story of the White Buffalo Woman prophesied that she would return in times of need. Does this refer to the needs of Indian peopleor of all people? Floyd Hand, the Lakota elder who predicted the birth of Miracle and the death of her sire, claims that Miracle was born to non-Indians to show that her message was meant for all people, not just Native Americans. The prophecy has indeed taken on global implications, for Miracle has captured the attention of the world.
Native American beliefs have evolved with the passage of time, but the main tenet that has always held true, that is the very basis for all Indian religions, is the knowledge that the earth and all that belongs to the earth are sacred and should be revered. As the world stands at the end of the Industrial Revolution, the planet soiled and polluted from 150 years of industrial production, people around the world recognize the need to protect the earth. Environmental awareness is not limited to the industrialized nations; all nations see the health of the earth as essential to the future. Today there is a growing consciousness of the need for a world view that honors the earthjust as the American Indians always have.
Poised at the edge of the Information Agethe next frontier in human history are we also seeing a return to the old ways? Has the Indian prophecy handed down through generations now come true? Has the White Buffalo Woman returned to the people in a time of need? These are very serious responsibilities to rest on the shoulders of one small buffalo calf named Miracle.