Nuclei and particle
What are the nuclei made of, and how are they held together? It is found that the nuclei are held together by enormous forces. When these are released, the energy released is tremendous compared with chemical energy, in the same ratio as the atomic bomb explosion is to a TNT explosion, because, of course, the atomic bomb has to do with changes inside the nucleus, while the explosion of TNT has to do with the changes of the electrons on the outside of the atoms. The question is, what are the forces which hold the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus? Just as the electrical interaction can be connected to a particle, a photon, Yukawa suggested that the forces between neutrons and protons also have a field of some kind, and that when this field jiggles it behaves like a particle. Thus there could be some other particles in the world besides protons and neutrons, and he was able to deduce the properties of these particles from the already known characteristics of nuclear forces. For example, he predicted they should have a mass of two or three hundred times that of an electron; and lo and behold, in cosmic rays there was discovered a particle of the right mass! But it later turned out to be the wrong particle. It was called a μ-meson, or muon.
However, a little while later, in 1947 or 1948, another particle was found, the π-meson, or pion, which satisfied Yukawa’s criterion. Besides the proton and the neutron, then, in order to get nuclear forces we must add the pion. Now, you say, “Oh great! with this theory we make quantum nucleodynamics using the pions just like Yukawa wanted to do, and see if it works, and everything will be explained.” Bad luck. It turns out that the calculations that are involved in this theory are so difficult that no one has ever been able to figure out what the consequences of the theory are, or to check it against experiment, and this has been going on now for almost twenty years!
So we are stuck with a theory, and we do not know whether it is right or wrong, but we do know that it is a little wrong, or at least incomplete. While we have been dawdling around theoretically, trying to calculate the consequences of this theory, the experimentalists have been discovering some things. For example, they had already discovered this μ-meson or muon, and we do not yet know where it fits. Also, in cosmic rays, a large number of other “extra” particles were found. It turns out that today we have approximately thirty particles, and it is very difficult to understand the relationships of all these particles, and what nature wants them for, or what the connections are from one to another. We do not today understand these various particles as different aspects of the same thing, and the fact that we have so many unconnected particles is a representation of the fact that we have so much unconnected information without a good theory. After the great successes of quantum electrodynamics, there is a certain amount of knowledge of nuclear physics which is rough knowledge, sort of half experience and half theory, assuming a type of force between protons and neutrons and seeing what will happen, but not really understanding where the force comes from. Aside from that, we have made very little progress. We have collected an enormous number of chemical elements. In the chemical case, there suddenly appeared a relationship among these elements which was unexpected, and which is embodied in the periodic table of Mendeléev. For example, sodium and potassium are about the same in their chemical properties and are found in the same column in the Mendeléev chart. We have been seeking a Mendeléev-type chart for the new particles. One such chart of the new particles was made independently by Gell-Mann in the USA and Nishijima in Japan. The basis of their classification is a new number, like the electric charge, which can be assigned to each particle, called its “strangeness,” S. This number is conserved, like the electric charge, in reactions which take place by nuclear forces.
In Table 2–2 are listed all the particles. We cannot discuss them much at this stage, but the table will at least show you how much we do not know. Underneath each particle its mass is given in a certain unit, called the Mev. One Mev is equal to 1.782 × 10—27 gram. The reason this unit was chosen is historical, and we shall not go into it now. More massive particles are put higher up on the chart; we see that a neutron and a proton have almost the same mass. In vertical columns we have put the particles with the same electrical charge, all neutral objects in one column, all positively charged ones to the right of this one, and all negatively charged objects to the left.
Particles are shown with a solid line and “resonances” with a dashed one. Several particles have been omitted from the table. These include the important zero-mass, zero-charge particles, the photon and the graviton, which do not fall into the baryon-meson-lepton classification scheme, and also some of the newer resonances (K*, ϕ, η). The antiparticles of the mesons are listed in the table, but the antiparticles of the leptons and baryons would have to be listed in another table which would look exactly like this one reflected on the zero-charge column. Although all of the particles except the electron, neutrino, photon, graviton, and proton are unstable, decay products have been shown only for the resonances. Strangeness assignments are not applicable for leptons, since they do not interact strongly with nuclei.
All particles which are together with the neutrons and protons are called baryons, and the following ones exist: There is a “lambda,” with a mass of 1115 Mev, and three others, called sigmas, minus, neutral, and plus, with several masses almost the same. There are groups or multiplets with almost the same mass, within 1 or 2 percent. Each particle in a multiplet has the same strangeness. The first multiplet is the proton-neutron doublet, and then there is a singlet (the lambda), then the sigma triplet, and finally the xi doublet. Very recently, in 1961, even a few more particles were found. Or are they particles? They live so short a time, they disintegrate almost instantaneously, as soon as they are formed, that we do not know whether they should be considered as new particles, or some kind of “resonance” interaction of a certain definite energy between the A and π products into which they disintegrate.
In addition to the baryons the other particles which are involved in the nuclear interaction are called mesons. There are first the pions, which come in three varieties, positive, negative, and neutral; they form another multiplet. We have also found some new things called K-mesons, and they occur as a doublet, K+ and K0. Also, every particle has its antiparticle, unless a particle is its own antiparticle. For example, the π—and the π+ are antiparticles, but the π0 is its own antiparticle. The K— and K+ are antiparticles, and the K0 and K0. In addition, in 1961 we also found some more mesons or maybe mesons which disintegrate almost immediately. A thing called ω which goes into three pions has a mass 780 on this scale, and somewhat less certain is an object which disintegrates into two pions. These particles, called mesons and baryons, and the antiparticles of the mesons are on the same chart, but the antiparticles of the baryons must be put on another chart, “reflected” through the charge-zero column.