42. Letter from Stalingrad regional party secretary, Feb. 16, 1933, APRF, f. 3, op. 30, d. 189, l. 34.
43. R. W. Davies and Stephen G. Wheatcroft, The Years of Hunger: Soviet Agriculture, 1931–1933 (New York, 2004), 411.
44. R. W. Davies, “Making Economic Policy,” in Paul R. Gregory, ed., Behind the Facade of Stalin’s Command Economy: Evidence from the Soviet State and Party Archives (Stanford, Calif., 2001), 70–71.
45. In 1929 the USSR exported 178 million tons; in 1930, the figure jumped to 4,764 million; and in 1931, to 5,056 million. See R. W. Davies, Mark Harrison, and S. G. Wheatcroft, eds., The Economic Transformation of the Soviet Union, 1913–1945 (Cambridge, Mass., 1994), 316, table 48.
46. Figures are from Stephen Wheatcroft, “More Light on the Scale of Repression and Excess Mortality in the Soviet Union in the 1930s,” in J. Arch Getty and Roberta T. Manning, eds., Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (New York, 1993), 283, table 14.2. Robert Conquest, Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine (New York, 1986), suggests that five million died in Ukraine, not four million (306). See also Nicolas Werth, “A State Against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union,” in Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism (Cambridge, Mass., 1999), 167.
47. Stalin to Kaganovich, Aug. 27, 1933, in Stalin i Kaganovich perepiska, 315–16; also K. E. Voroshilov to A. S. Yenukidze, Aug. 27, 1933, in A. V. Kvashonkin, et al., eds., Sovetskoe rukovodstvo: Perepiska 1928–1941 g. (Moscow, 1999), 249–52.
48. Norman M. Naimark, Stalin’s Genocides (Princeton, N.J., 2010), 70–79; and Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (New York, 2010), 42–46. See also Halyna Hryn, ed., Hunger by Design: The Great Ukrainian Famine and Its Soviet Context (Cambridge, Mass., 2008). For a critique, see Yana Pitner, “Mass Murder or Massive Incompetence,” H-Russia (Oct. 2010), http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=30622.
49. Letter to Stalin, Jan. 28, 1931, and his response, Feb. 1, 1931, APRF, f. 3, op. 40, d. 77, l. 24–26. See the documentary record provided by V. V. Kondrashin, ed., Golod v SSSR: 1929–1934 (Moscow, 2011–12), 2 vols.
50. Stalin-Molotov letter to First Secretary Middle Volga, Nov. 28, 1931, APRF, f. 3, op. 40, d. 79, l. 150.
51. Stalin, Sochineniia, 13:177–88.
52. The classic study is Stephen Kotkin, Magnetic Mountain: Stalinism as a Civilization (Berkeley, Calif., 1995).
53. Hiroaki Kuromiya, Freedom and Terror in the Donbas: A Ukrainian-Russian Borderland, 1870s–1990s (Cambridge, U.K., 1998), 119–50; and Arkady Vaksberg, Stalin’s Prosecutor: The Life of Andrei Vyshinsky (New York, 1990), 42–45.
54. Doc. 3 in N. V. Petrov, ed., Istoriia stalinskogo Gulaga (Moscow, 2004), 2:58–59; Oleg V. Khlevniuk, The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror (New Haven, Conn., 2004), 9–12.
55. Doc. 32 in A. B. Bezborodov and V. M. Khrustalev, eds., Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga (Moscow, 2004), 4:110; V. N. Zemskov, “GULAG (Istoriko-sotsiologicheskii aspekt),” Sotsiologicheskii issledovaniya (1991), no. 6, 10–27; no. 7, 3–16.
56. Doc. 211 in T. V. Tsarevskaia-Diakina, ed., Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga (Moscow, 2004), 5:707–8.
57. Larina, This I Cannot Forget, 133–47; Robert Service, Stalin: A Biography (London, 2004), 288–98; Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (New York, 2004), 5–22.
58. Svetlana Alliluyeva, Dvadtsat pisem k drugu (New York, 1967), 116–34.
59. See the exhaustive archival research by Matthew E. Lenoe, The Kirov Murder and Soviet History (New Haven, Conn., 2010), 128, 141, 611.
60. J. Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, Yezhov: The Rise of Stalin’s “Iron Fist” (New Haven, Conn., 2008), 139.
61. J. Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, eds., The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939 (New Haven, Conn., 1999), 198, also n3.
62. Marc Jansen and Nikita Petrov, Stalin’s Loyal Executioner: People’s Commissar Nikolai Ezhov (Stanford, Calif., 2002), 46; Stalin to Kaganovich, Aug. 23, 1936, in Khlevniuk et al., eds., Stalin i Kaganovich perepiska, 642–43.
63. Larina, This I Cannot Forget, 283.
64. Stalin and Zhdanov to Kaganovich, Molotov, and Politburo, Sept. 25, 1936, in Khlevniuk et al., eds., Stalin i Kaganovich perepiska, 682–83; Getty and Naumov, Stalin’s Iron Fist, 204; Jansen and Petrov, Stalin’s Loyal Executioner, 57.
65. Indictment, Jan. 5, 1937, APRF, f. 3, op. 24, d. 269, l. 38–58.
66. Instructions, Jan. 22, 1937, APRF, f. 3, op. 24, d. 274, l. 72–74. See also Donald Rayfield, Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him (New York, 2004), 279, 315–20; and William Chase, “Stalin as Producer: The Moscow Show Trials and the Production of Mortal Threats,” in Sarah Davies and James Harris, eds., Stalin: A New History (Cambridge, Mass., 2005), 226–48.
67. Karl Schlögel, Terror und Traum: Moskau 1937 (Frankfurt am Main, 2010), 239–66.
68. Larina, This I Cannot Forget, 127.
69. Ibid., 313–16.
70. Schlögel, Terror und Traum, 258–59; transcripts in Getty and Naumov, Road to Terror, 364–419.
CHAPTER 2. EXTERMINATING INTERNAL THREATS TO SOCIALIST UNITY
1. Stalin’s remarks, Nov. 7, 1937, in Georgi Dimitrov, Dnevnik: mart 1933—fevruari 1949: izbrano (Sofia, 2003), 60–62.
2. See Oleg W. Chlewnjuk (a.k.a. Oleg V. Khlevnyuk), Das Politbüro: Mechanismen der Macht in der Sowjetunion der dreissiger Jahre (Hamburg, 1998), 246–69. For emphasis on Stalin as a “degenerative psychotic,” see Donald Rayfield, Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him (New York, 2004), 293–339.
3. Lev Kopelev, To Be Preserved Forever (New York, 1977), 92.
4. Victor A. Kravchenko, I Chose Freedom (1946; New Brunswick, N.J., 2002), 282.
5. Joseph Davies, Mission to Moscow (New York, 1941), 269–70; Stephen F. Cohen, Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution: A Political Biography, 1888–1938 (New York, 1974), 374–81.
6. Speech, Jan. 7, 1933, in Stalin, Sochineniia, 13:210–11; speech, Mar. 3, 1937, ibid., 14:161.
7. APRF, f. 3, op. 58, d. 6, l. 30–31.
8. For Stalin’s initiating order, see doc. 163 in J. Arch Getty and Oleg V. Naumov, eds., The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939 (New Haven, Conn., 1999), 457. The records, including the Vyshinsky report, Dec. 17, analyzed in Nicolas Werth, “Les ‘petits procès exemplaires’ en URSS durant la Grande Terreur (1937–1938),” Vingtième Siècle. Revue d’histoire, No. 86 (Apr.–June, 2005), 5–23.