55. Goeken-Haidl, Der Weg zurück, 549.
56. Mark Edele, Soviet Veterans of the Second World War: A Popular Movement in an Authoritarian Society, 1941–1991 (Oxford, U.K., 2008), 102–18.
57. Geoffrey Hosking, Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union (Cambridge, Mass., 2006), 217.
58. Alexander Victor Prusin, “‘Fascist Criminals to the Gallows!’: The Holocaust and Soviet War Crimes Trials, Dec. 1945–February 1946,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies (2003), 6; Bourtman, “‘Blood for Blood, Death for Death,’ ” 251, 257.
59. Stalin, Sochineniia, 15:71–83.
60. Molotov’s Jan. 6 report in Pravda, Jan. 7, 1942.
61. Ibid., Apr. 28, 1942, May 11, 1943.
62. U.S. Department of State, Dec. 17, 1942, in Report of Jackson, International Conference on Military Trials, 3–17.
63. Pravda, Dec. 18 and 19, 1942. For a detailed study, see Karel C. Berkhoff, “‘Total Annihilation of the Jewish Population’: The Holocaust in the Soviet Media, 1941–45,” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History (2009), 61–105.
64. See the declaration and story, Jan. 18, 1943, in Laurel Leff, Buried by The Times: The Holocaust and America’s Most Important Newspaper (New York, 2005), 159–62.
65. Stalin, Sochineniia, 15:162–74.
66. Mar. 14, ibid., 16:25–30.
67. Berkhoff, “‘Total Annihilation of the Jewish Population,’ ” 93.
68. Sergei Maksudov, “The Jewish Population Losses of the USSR from the Holocaust: A Demographic Approach,” in Lucjan Dobroszycki and Jeffrey S. Gurock, eds., The Holocaust in the Soviet Union: Studies and Sources of the Destruction of the Jews in Nazi-Occupied Territories of the USSR, 1941–1945 (London, 1993), 212.
69. For this story and analysis of the Holocaust, see Robert Gellately, Lenin, Stalin, and Hitler: The Age of Social Catastrophe (New York, 2007), 413–68.
70. Andreas Hilger, “‘Die Gerechtigkeit nehme ihren Lauf’: Die Bestrafung deutscher Kriegs- und Gewaltverbrecher in der Sowjetunion und der SBZ/DDR,” in Frei, Transnationale Vergangenheitspolitik, 183.
71. Doc. 33 in D. G. Nadzhafov and Z. S. Belousova, eds., Stalin i kosmopolitizm: dokumenty Agitpropa TSK KPSS, 1945–1953 (Moscow, 2005).
72. Josuha Rubenstein and Ilya Altman, eds., The Unknown Black Book: The Holocaust in the German-Occupied Soviet Territories (Bloomington, Ind., 2008), xix–xxxix.
73. Amir Weiner, “When Memory Counts: War, Genocide, and Postwar Soviet Jewry,” in Weiner, ed., Landscaping the Human Garden: Twentieth-Century Population Management in a Comparative Framework (Stanford, Calif., 2003), 167–88.
74. Manfred Zeidler, “Der Minsker Kriegsverbrecherprozess vom Januar 1946: Kritische Anmerkungen zu einem sowjetischen Schauprozess gegen deutsche Kriegsgefangene,” Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (2004), 226.
75. G. V. Kostyrchenko, Tainaia politikika Stalina: Vlast i antisemitizm (Moscow, 2001), 388–94.
76. Sorokina, “People and Procedures,” 829–30.
77. Christopher R. Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939–March 1942 (Lincoln, Neb., 2004), 274–75.
78. Frank Grüner, “Did Anti-Jewish Mass Violence Exist in the Soviet Union? Anti-Semitism and Collective Violence in the USSR During the War and Post War Years,” Journal of Genocide Research (2009), 361.
79. See Yitzhak Arad, The Holocaust in the Soviet Union (Lincoln, Neb., 2009), 543–44.
CHAPTER 11. SOVIET RETRIBUTION AND ETHNIC GROUPS
1. Pavel Polian, Ne po svoyey vole. Istoriya i geografiya prinuditel’nykh migratsii v SSSR (Moscow, 2001), 105.
2. Docs. 134 to 149 in S. V. Mironenko and N. Werth, eds., Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga (Moscow, 2004), 1:455–75.
3. Beria to Stalin, in APRF, f. 3, op. 58, d. 178, l. 6–9.
4. Fred C. Koch, The Volga Germans in Russia and the Americas, from 1763 to the Present (London, 1977), 284–85. On the lost culture, see Gerd Stricker, ed., Deutsche Geschichte im Osten Europas: Russland (Berlin, 1997).
5. Polian, Ne po svoyey vole, 105–16; Nicolas Werth, “A State Against Its People: Violence, Repression, and Terror in the Soviet Union,” in Stéphane Courtois et al., The Black Book of Communism (Cambridge, U.K., 1999), 218; J. Otto Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing in the USSR, 1937–1949 (Westport, Conn., 1999), 54.
6. M. M. Zagorulko, ed., Voennoplennye v SSSR 1939–1956: dokumenty i materialy (Moscow, 2000), 10, 25–59; for figures on German POW deaths in the USSR (363,000), see Rüdiger Overmans, Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg (Munich, 2004), 286.
7. Kruglov report to USSR government, May 24, 1950, doc. 9.1, in Zagorulko, Voennoplennye v SSSR, 916–20.
8. Notification, Dec. 28, 1943, APRF, f. 3, op. 58, d. 178, l. 73–76.
9. Peter Holquist, “To Count, to Extract, and to Exterminate: Population Statistics and Population Politics in Late Imperial and Soviet Russia,” in Ronald Grigor Suny and Terry Martin, eds., A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Building in the Age of Lenin and Stalin (New York, 2001), 116–19; Charles King, The Ghost of Freedom: A History of the Caucasus (New York, 2008), 94–96.
10. Jörg Baberowski, Der Feind ist überalclass="underline" Stalinismus im Kaukasus (Munich, 2003), 553–632.
11. Aleksandr M. Nekrich, The Punished Peoples: The Deportation and Tragic Fate of Soviet Minorities at the End of the Second World War (New York, 1978), 25.
12. Alexander Statiev, “The Nature of Anti-Soviet Armed Resistance, 1942–44: The North Caucasus, the Kalmyk Autonomous Republic, and Crimea,” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History (2005), 285–318.
13. Terry Martin, “The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing,” Journal of Modern History (1998), 824–25.
14. Doc. 3.189 in N. L. Pobol and P. M. Polian, eds., Stalinskie Deportatsii (Moscow, 2005), 546.
15. HP, Schedule B, vol. 7, case 89; see also case 354; Polian, Ne po svoyey vole, 116.
16. Svetlana Alieva, ed., Tak eto bylo: natsionalye repressii v SSSR 1919–1952 gody (Moscow, 1993), 1:312.
17. Mironenko and Werth, Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga, 1:476–77.
18. Merkulov to Stalin, in APRF, f. 3, op. 58, d. 207, l. 159–75.
19. Statiev, “Anti-Soviet Armed Resistance,” 305.
20. Beria to Stalin, Jan. 3, 1944, in GARF, f. 9401, op. 2, d. 64, l. 1. For their story in the oral testimony of a Kalmyk, see HP, Schedule B, vol. 7, case 23; Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, 61–69; Mironenko and Werth, Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga, 1:477–80.
21. Alexander Statiev, “Soviet Ethnic Deportations: Intent Versus Outcome,” Journal of Genocide Research (2009), 250.
22. Mironenko and Werth, Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga, 1:491–92.
23. HP, Schedule A, vol. 22, case 434, male, 54, Chechen, laborer; also case 81. See also Norman M. Naimark, Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe (Princeton, N.J., 2001), 94.