24. Jeffrey Burds, “The Soviet War Against ‘Fifth Columnists’: The Case of Chechnya,” Journal of Contemporary History (2007), 305–6.
25. See GARF, f. 9401, op. 2, d. 64, l. 167–68; Polian, Ne po svoyey vole, 122.
26. Beria to Stalin. Feb. 29, 1944, in GARF, f. 9401, op. 2, d. 64, l. 161.
27. Quoted with other witnesses in Lyoma Usmanov, “The 1944 Deportation,” Chechen Times, Feb. 13, 2004. See also Yo’av Karny, Highlanders: A Journey to the Caucasus in Quest of Memory (New York, 2000), 227; Amir Weiner, Making Sense of War: The Second World War and the Fate of the Bolshevik Revolution (Princeton, N.J., 2001), 151.
28. Quoted in Anatol Lieven, Chechnya: Tombstone of Russian Power (New Haven, Conn., 1998), 319.
29. For various numbers in this range, see Naimark, Fires of Hatred, 220n63.
30. Ibid., 98–99. For lower numbers, see N. F. Bugai, Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin—Lavrentyu Berii: ikh nado deportirovat (Moscow, 1992), 102n.
31. Quoted in Amy Knight, Beria: Stalin’s First Lieutenant (Princeton, N.J., 1993), 127; and in Lieven, Chechnya, 320.
32. Quoted in Michaela Pohl, “From the Chechen People: Anti-Soviet Protest, 1944–1946,” Chechen Times, Mar. 13, 2004.
33. Polian, Ne po svoyey vole, 131–35.
34. HP, Schedule A, vol. 13, case 159, 4.
35. Polian, Ne po svoyey vole, 125; Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, 74–77, 87–92.
36. Natalia I. Egorova, “The ‘Iran Crisis’ of 1945–46: A View from the Russian Archives,” CWIHP Working Paper no. 15 (Washington, D.C., 1996), 1–25; Bryan Glyn Williams, “Hidden Ethnocide in the Soviet Muslim Borderlands: The Ethnic Cleansing of the Crimean Tatars,” Journal of Genocide Research (2002), 357–73.
37. Stalin order, May 11, 1944, in Mironenko and Werth, Istoriia stalinskogo Gulaga, 1:499–500.
38. Isaak Kobylyanskiy, From Stalingrad to Pillau: A Red Army Artillery Officer Remembers the Great Patriotic War (Lawrence, Kansas, 2008), 115–17.
39. Naimark, Fires of Hatred, 102.
40. Nekrich, The Punished Peoples, 111.
41. The correspondence is in Mironenko and Werth, Istoriia stalinskogo Gulaga, 1:495–500. See also Polian, Ne po svoyey vole, 126; Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, 115.
42. Alieva, Tak eto bylo, 3:93.
43. Mironenko and Werth, Istoria stalinskogo Gulaga, 1:503–6; Polian, Ne po svoyey vole, 128.
44. Polian, Ne po svoyey vole, 127–29; Pohl, Ethnic Cleansing, 121, 132.
45. Statiev, “Soviet Ethnic Deportations,” 248, table 3.
46. John Erickson, The Road to Berlin: Stalin’s War with Germany (New Haven, Conn., 1983), 411–22.
47. Elena Zubkova, Pribaltika i Kreml (Moscow, 2008), 128–44.
48. See Valdis O. Lumans, Latvia in World War II (New York, 2006), 376–77.
49. Alexander Statiev, The Soviet Counterinsurgency in the Western Borderlands (Cambridge, U.K., 2010), 276–77; Mart Laar, War in the Woods: Estonia’s Struggle for Survival, 1945–1956 (Washington, D.C., 1992), 46–50.
50. Zubkova, Pribaltika i Kreml, 141–42.
51. Statiev, Soviet Counterinsurgency, 186–87.
52. Zubkova, Pribaltika i Kreml, 234, table 4.3.
53. Testimony in Laar, War in the Woods, 75–76.
54. Zukova, Pribaltika i Kreml, 234, table 4.3. Some variations in the statistics can be found in Statiev, Soviet Counterinsurgency, 110, table 4.4, also 190.
55. Statiev, Soviet Counterinsurgency, 156–58.
56. Docs. 177 and 178 in Mironenko and Werth, Istoriia stalinskogo Gulaga, 1:513–15.
57. I. M. Vladimirtsev and A. I. Kokurin, eds., NKVD—MVD SSSR v borbe s banditizmom i vooruzhennym natsionalisticheskim podpolem na Zapadnoi Ukraine, v Zapadnoi Belorussii i Pribaltike (1939–1956): sbornik dokumentov (Moscow, 2008), 371–72.
58. Weiner, Making Sense of War, 130–35.
59. Timothy Snyder, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999 (New Haven, Conn., 2005), 170.
60. Docs. 1–3, Sept. 17–22, 1944, in Stanisław Ciesielski, ed., Umsiedlung der Polen aus den ehemaligen polnischen Ostgebieten nach Polen in den Jahren 1944–1947 (Marburg, 2006), 76–96.
61. Calculated from Statiev, Soviet Counterinsurgency, 125, table 4.10.
62. Maria Savchyn Pyskir, Thousands of Roads: A Memoir of a Young Woman’s Life in the Ukrainian Underground During and After World War II (Jefferson, N.C., 2001), 38–39.
63. Statiev, Soviet Counterinsurgency, 110, table 4.4, also 190.
64. Pyshir, Thousands of Roads, 108–9.
65. For impressions, see Zygmunt Klukowski, Red Shadow: A Physician’s Memoir of the Soviet Occupation of Eastern Poland, 1944–1956 (Jefferson, N.C., 1997).
66. Kruglov to Stalin, Beria, and others, Oct. 31, 1946, doc. 127, in Vladimirtsev and Kokurin, NKVD—MVD SSSR v borbe s banditizmom, 365–67.
67. Krystyna Kersten, “Forced Migration and the Transformation of Polish Society in the Postwar Period,” in Philipp Ther and Ana Siljak, eds., Redrawing Nations: Ethnic Cleansing in East-Central Europe, 1944–1948 (Oxford, U.K., 2001), 75–86.
68. Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin (New York, 2010), 328; Weiner, Making Sense of War, 173; Orest Subtelny, “Expulsion, Resettlement, Civil Strife: The Fate of Poland’s Ukrainians, 1944–1947,” in Ther and Siljak, Redrawing Nations, 155–72.
69. Alexander V. Prusin, The Lands Between: Conflict in the East European Borderlands, 1870–1992 (Oxford, 2010), 223.
CHAPTER 12. REAFFIRMING COMMUNIST IDEOLOGY
1. Doc. 33 in Andrei Artizov and Oleg Naumov, eds., Vlast i khudozhestvennaia intelligentsia: Dokumenty Tsk RKP(b)-VKP(b), VChK-OGPU-NKVD o kulturnoi politike, 1917–1953 (Moscow, 1953), 532.
2. Leszek Kolakowski, Main Currents of Marxism, vol. 3, The Breakdown (New York, 1981), 121.
3. HIA, U.S. Department of State, External Research Staff, The Soviet Union as Reported by Former Soviet Citizens, Report 1, Aug. 1951, 3.
4. Doc. 5 in Artizov and Naumov, Vlast i khudozhestvennaia intelligentsia, 532.
5. Kees Boterbloem, The Life and Times of Andrei Zhdanov, 1896–1948 (Montreal and Kingston, 2004), 255.
6. Yoram Gorlizki and Oleg Khlevniuk, Cold Peace: Stalin and the Soviet Ruling Circle, 1945–1953 (New York, 2004), 31.
7. Doc. 5 in Artizov and Naumov, Vlast i khudozhestvennaia intelligentsia, 550.
8. Doc. 13, Aug. 7, 1946, ibid., 563.