20. Michael W. Krauss et al., “Tactile Communication, Cooperation, and Performance: An Ethological Study of the NBA,” Emotion 10, no. 5 (October 2010): 745–49.
21. India Morrison et al., “The Skin as a Social Organ,” Experimental Brain Research, published online September 22, 2009; Ralph Adolphs, “Conceptual Challenges and Directions for Social Neuroscience,” Neuron 65, no. 6 (March 25, 2010): 752–67.
22. Ralph Adolphs, interview by author, November 10, 2011.
23. Morrison et al., “The Skin as a Social Organ.”
24. R. I. M. Dunbar, “The Social Role of Touch in Humans and Primates: Behavioral Functions and Neurobiological Mechanisms,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 34 (2008): 260–68.
25. Matthew J. Hertenstein et al., “The Communicative Functions of Touch in Humans, Nonhuman Primates, and Rats: A Review and Synthesis of the Empirical Research,” Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs 132, no. 1 (2006): 5–94.
26. The debate scenario is from Alan Schroeder, Presidential Debates: Fifty Years of High-Risk TV, 2nd ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008).
27. Sidney Kraus, Televised Presidential Debates and Public Policy (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2000), 208–12. Note that Kraus incorrectly states that the Southern Governors’ Conference was in Arizona.
28. James N. Druckman, “The Power of Televised Images: The First Kennedy-Nixon Debate Revisited,” Journal of Politics 65, no. 2 (May 2003): 559–71.
29. Shawn W. Rosenberg et al., “The Image and the Vote: The Effect of Candidate Presentation on Voter Preference,” American Journal of Political Science 30, no. 1 (February 1986): 108–27, and Shawn W. Rosenberg et al., “Creating a Political Image: Shaping Appearance and Manipulating the Vote,” Political Behavior 13, no. 4 (1991): 345–66.
30. Alexander Todorov et al., “Inferences of Competence from Faces Predict Election Outcomes,” Science 308 (June 10, 2005): 1623–26.
31. It is interesting to note that while this is quite clear in photographs of Darwin, his nose seems to have been minimized in paintings.
32. Darwin Correspondence Database, http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/entry_3235.
33. Charles Darwin, The Autobiography of Charles Darwin (1887; repr. Rockville, MD.: Serenity, 2008), 40.
7. SORTING PEOPLE AND THINGS
1. David J. Freedman et al., “Categorical Representation of Visual Stimuli in the Primate Prefrontal Cortex,” Science 291 (January 2001): 312–16.
2. Henri Tajfel and A. L. Wilkes, “Classification and Quantitative Judgment,” British Journal of Psychology 54 (1963): 101–14; Oliver Corneille et al., “On the Role of Familiarity with Units of Measurement in Categorical Accentuation: Tajfel and Wilkes (1963) Revisited and Replicated,” Psychological Science 13, no. 4 (July 2002): 380–83.
3. Robert L. Goldstone, “Effects of Categorization on Color Perception,” Psychological Science 6, no. 5 (September 1995): 298–303.
4. Joachim Krueger and Russell W. Clement, “Memory-Based Judgments About Multiple Categories: A Revision and Extension of Tajfel’s Accentuation Theory,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67, no. 1 (July 1994): 35–47.
5. Linda Hamilton Krieger, “The Content of Our Categories: A Cognitive Bias Approach to Discrimination and Equal Employment Opportunity,” Stanford Law Review 47, no. 6 (July 1995): 1161–248.
6. Elizabeth Ewen and Stuart Ewen, Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality (New York: Seven Stories, 2008).
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. The image is from Giambattista della Porta, De Humana Physiognomonia Libri IIII. From the website of the National Library of Medicine: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/historicalanatomies/porta_home.html. According to http://stevenpoke.com/giambattista-della-porta-de-humana-physiognomonia-1586: “I found these images at the Historical Anatomies on the Web exhibition which is part of the US National Library of Medicine which has over 70,000 images available online.”
10. Darrell J. Steffensmeier, “Deviance and Respectability: An Observational Study of Shoplifting,” Social Forces 51, no. 4 (June 1973): 417–26; see also Kenneth C. Mace, “The ‘Overt-Bluff’ Shoplifter: Who Gets Caught?” Journal of Forensic Psychology 4, no. 1 (December 1972): 26–30.
11. H. T. Himmelweit, “Obituary: Henri Tajfel, FBPsS,” Bulletin of the British Psychological Society 35 (1982): 288–89.
12. William Peter Robinson, ed., Social Groups and Identities: Developing the Legacy of Henri Tajfel (Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1996), 3.
13. Ibid.
14. Henri Tajfel, Human Groups and Social Categories (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
15. Robinson, ed., Social Groups and Identities, 5.
16. Krieger, “The Content of Our Categories.”
17. Anthony G. Greenwald et al., “Measuring Individual Differences in Implicit Cognition: The Implicit Association Test,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, no. 6 (1998): 1464–80; see also Brian A. Nosek et al., “The Implicit Association Test at Age 7: A Methodological and Conceptual Review,” in Automatic Processes in Social Thinking and Behavior, ed. J. A. English (New York: Psychology Press, 2007), 265–92.
18. Elizabeth Milne and Jordan Grafman, “Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex Lesions in Humans Eliminate Implicit Gender Stereotyping,” Journal of Neuroscience 21 (2001): 1–6.
19. Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Cambridge: Addison-Wesley, 1954), 20–23.
20. Ibid., 4–5.
21. Joseph Lelyveld, Great Souclass="underline" Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle with India (New York: Knopf, 2011).
22. Ariel Dorfman, “Che Guevara: The Guerrilla,” Time, June 14, 1999.
23. Marian L. Tupy, “Che Guevara and the West,” Cato Institute: Commentary (November 10, 2009).
24. Krieger, “The Content of Our Categories,” 1184. Strangely, the woman lost her case. Her lawyers appealed, but the appeals court upheld the verdict, dismissing the statement as a “stray remark.”
25. Millicent H. Abel and Heather Watters, “Attributions of Guilt and Punishment as Functions of Physical Attractiveness and Smiling,” Journal of Social Psychology 145, no. 6 (2005): 687–702; Michael G. Efran, “The Effect of Physical Appearance on the Judgment of Guilt, Interpersonal Attraction, and Severity of Recommended Punishment in a Simulated Jury Task,” Journal of Research in Personality 8, no. 1 (June 1974): 45–54; Harold Sigall and Nancy Ostrove, “Beautiful but Dangerous: Effects of Offender Attractiveness and Nature of the Crime on Juridic Judgment,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 31, no. 3 (1975): 410–14; Jochen Piehl, “Integration of Information in the Courts: Influence of Physical Attractiveness on Amount of Punishment for a Traffic Offender,” Psychological Reports 41, no. 2 (October 1977): 551–56; and John E. Stewart II, “Defendant’s Attractiveness as a Factor in the Outcome of Criminal Trials: An Observational Study,” Journal of Applied Psychology 10, no. 4 (August 1980): 348–61.