In the 1950s and ’60s, as the baby boom began, the ‘‘Million Home Program’’ was instituted to provide a higher standard of housing throughout the country. The goal was to build one million new dwellings, to be occupied by no more than two people per room, not counting the kitchen and living room. This began a policy of state responsibility for the legislation and funding of housing construction, with the municipalities charged with planning and implementation. In the 1970s the construction of single-family houses increased and rent control ended. The housing improvement schemes of the 1980s modernized much of the housing stock, and new projects mushroomed through 1990, a year in which nearly 70,000 units were built.
The economic crisis of the 1990s and the systematic dismantling of many of the iconic features of the welfare state led to a dramatic change in Sweden’s housing policy. Construction dwindled at this time as subsidized housing schemes were eliminated in favour of housing allowances or supplements. As the effects of the 1990s depression subsided, the government attempted to address housing problems in the first decade of the 21st century by investing in projects meant to stimulate the construction of new housing, particularly that of smaller apartments. The government also worked with private builders and municipal housing authorities to ensure a sustainable stock of high-quality housing that was both environmentally sensitive and affordable.
In the early 21st century, more than half of Swedish households lived in apartments, while the remainder lived in houses. At the turn of the century, the average Swedish household spent about one-fourth of its disposable income on rent. Housing stock is not evenly distributed throughout the country. In some regions, such as the greater Stockholm area, housing is at a premium, while in other smaller and medium-sized communities, there is a surplus of housing stock.
On average, just over two Swedes live in each dwelling. Approximately two-fifths of the housing stock is owner-occupied; nearly half is rental; and the remainder is owned by cooperative tenant owners. Sweden is the only country where the predominant colour of houses is red. Education
The education system is, with few exceptions, public and open to all without fees. Primary schools are run by the municipalities, as are the secondary schools. Universities and colleges are administered by the state, but they have been given far-reaching autonomy in the use of resources. Academic freedom is carefully guarded by faculty and students alike.
All municipalities must provide preschool classes. Parents may choose whether or not to send their children, and the great majority does participate. Parents and pupils have the choice of free municipal schools as well as independent schools, which may charge tuition. Only a very small percentage of all Swedish children attend private or independent schools. The comprehensive school (grundskola) is compulsory for nine years. Children are required to attend school between the ages of 7 and 16. Compulsory education is free, and no charge is made for school lunches, transportation, or educational materials. The comprehensive school is divided into three-year stages: lower, middle, and upper. Each school may decide when English and other foreign languages are introduced, but all must meet the same standards by grade 5. About one-third of all schools begin English instruction in grade 1. From the seventh year the curriculum is divided into different lines chosen by the pupils themselves. Special education is given to all pupils suffering from physical or mental handicaps.
Nearly all of the pupils continue from comprehensive school to the upper secondary school. The curriculum in this school (gymnasieskola) is divided between several theoretical programs, which are university-oriented, and a variety of vocationally oriented programs. Certain core subjects are common to all programs.
Marks, or grades, are given in comprehensive school starting in the eighth year. In the upper secondary school grades are given each term. About half of all young people in Sweden go on to higher studies within five years of completing upper secondary school.
Sweden has about a dozen major universities and some 20 university-colleges. The oldest is the Uppsala University, founded in 1477. Other universities are located in Lund, Stockholm, Gothenburg, Umeå, Linköping, Karlstad and Växjö. Sweden is also home to other world-renowned institutions, including the Karolinska Institute (medicine) in Stockholm and the Chalmers University of Technology. Education is free of charge; students pay no tuition. Courses are typically taught in Swedish, but course literature is often in English. An increasing number of courses are also offered in English.
Continuing and adult education are important features of the Swedish education system. Adult education outside the public school system is offered at the many Folk High Schools, a uniquely Scandinavian educational institution. Also characteristic are the nationwide voluntary education associations. About half of Sweden’s adult population pursues studies in one form or another. Since 1968 municipalities have offered courses for adults covering the three upper grades of comprehensive school and upper secondary school. University courses also are open to all age groups. Distance learning—including radio and television courses, as well as Internet and correspondence courses—is popular and especially useful for persons who reside far from educational centres. Cultural life Cultural milieu
Sweden’s cultural heritage is an interweaving of a uniquely Swedish sensibility with ideas and impulses taken from other, larger cultures. As a result, Swedish culture has long been characterized by a push and pull. Swedish art, poetry, literature, music, textiles, dance, and design are deeply infused with a primal relationship with the Nordic landscape and climate, but Swedes also have long been attracted to the greatness of the cultures of such countries as France and Germany, and influences from these and other European cultures have contributed to the development of Swedish literature, fashion, and cultural debate, as well as to the Swedish language itself.
As Swedish political influence grew, particularly in the 17th and 18th centuries, so did a desire among prominent Swedes for their country to take a place at centre stage with other important European cultures. This refusal to be classified as a cultural backwater remains a strong force today. At the same time, simplicity is a hallmark of Swedish culture, as is openness to new thoughts and trends. There is also a sense of wit and playfulness combined with candor and sincerity that is apparent not only in the works of Swedish cultural icons such as Selma Lagerlöf, August Strindberg, Ingmar Bergman, Astrid Lindgren, and Carl Larsson but also in Swedish folk music and folk art.
War-weary and largely nonaligned since the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, Sweden embraced a neutrality and peacefulness that permitted the state in the 20th century to broadly support arts and culture politically, educationally, and economically. During the last half of the 20th century, Sweden welcomed immigrants and refugees who brought with them their own cultural traditions, which have informed the broader Swedish culture. The effects of American popular culture have also been widely felt in Sweden. A rebirth of contemporary Swedish creativity has attracted worldwide attention both in those art forms in which Swedes have traditionally thrived—literature and film—and in design, popular music, photography, fashion, gastronomy, and textiles. Daily life and social customs
Genuine rural folk traditions are disappearing in urban areas as a result of increasing settlement; however, since the 1990s there has been a resurgence of interest in those traditions among many Swedes who live in towns and cities. Still vital in Gotland, Dalarna, and various other areas are special national costumes, dances, folk music, and the like. Spring is celebrated on the last night of April with bonfires and song across the country. This is a great students’ festival in university towns such as Uppsala and Lund. The bright Midsummer Eve is celebrated around June 21, about the time of the year’s longest day (see solstice). In the ceremony a large pole, decorated with flowers and leaves, is placed into the ground and danced around. Some celebrations have a religious association: Advent, St. Lucia’s Day, Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. Pagan elements are still sometimes evident in these holiday ceremonies. The Lucia candlelights are a relatively recent but very popular custom performed for St. Lucia’s Day on the morning of December 13, at almost the darkest time of year; the ceremony features a “Light Queen,” who, wearing a white gown and a crown of lighted candles, represents the returning sun.