50. Weiss, “Duping the Soviets: The Farewell Dossier,” Studies in Intelligence, 124; and Reed, At the Abyss, 266–67.
51. Decades earlier, the Soviets had great success in penetrating American atomic research. Now, they were interested in all technologies, not just for military reasons but mainly for economic ones.
52. Weiss, “Duping the Soviets: The Farewell Dossier,” Studies in Intelligence, 124. 53. Reed, At the Abyss, 267.
54. Interviews with Weiss and Reed, At the Abyss, 267–68, 270.
55. On this, see Weiss, “Duping the Soviets: The Farewell Dossier,” Studies in Intelligence, 125; David E. Hoffman, “Reagan Approved Plan to Sabotage Soviets,” Washington Post, February 27, 2004, A1; and Reed, At the Abyss, 266–70.
56. Interviews with Weiss and Reed, At the Abyss, 267–68, 270.
57. Information on the directives has been published in a variety of sources. Perhaps the best is Christopher Simpson, National Security Directives of the Reagan and Bush Administrations: The Declassified History of U.S. Political and Military Policy, 1981–1991 (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995). The directives are also on file at the Reagan Library, which is where I read most of them. 58. Bill Clark, “President Reagan and the Wall,” Address to the Council of National Policy, San Francisco, California, March 2000.
59. Interview with Bill Clark, August 24, 2001.
60. Pipes, “Misinterpreting the Cold War,” 157.
61. Shultz interviewed on “The Point with Greta Van Susteren,” CNN, February 6, 2001. Shultz said the same to me in a July 15, 2003 interview in Palo Alto, California. 62. NSDD-24, February 9, 1982. NSDD is on file at the Reagan Library. See Simpson, NSDDs of Reagan and Bush, 58; and Richard Perle, “Department of Defense Position on the Soviet-West European Natural Gas Pipeline,” November 21, 1981, AFPCD 1981, 431–34. 63. NSDD-24 was a follow-up to the White House’s December 30, 1981 ban on U.S. exports that might assist the pipeline project, an embargo implemented in response to the Communist imposition of martial law in Poland.
64. It is not clear who, if anyone, Reagan was quoting here, though he appeared to be quoting someone. Reagan, “Remarks at the AFL-CIO,” April 5, 1982.
65. Reagan, “Remarks to Citizens in Hambach, Federal Republic of Germany,” May 6, 1985.
66. Reagan, “Address at Commencement Exercises at Eureka College,” Eureka, Illinois, May 9, 1982.
67. NSDD-32 was a summary of a report released in April 1982. The NSDD and the report are both on file at the Reagan Library. The NSDD was declassified in February 1996.
68. Carl Bernstein, “The Holy Alliance,” Time, February 24, 1992, 31.
69. Keith Schneider, “Reagan-Pope Plan to Topple Warsaw is Reported,” New York Times, February 18, 1992; Bernstein, “The Holy Alliance,” 28–35; Michael Ledeen, “This Political Pope,” The American Enterprise, 4, no. 4 (July 1993): 40–43; Schweizer, Victory, xviii, 68–69; and Raymond L. Garthoff, The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1994), 31–32.
70. Bernstein, “The Holy Alliance,” 31.
71. Joseph E. Persico, Casey: From the OSS to the CIA (New York: Viking, 1990), 236; Bernstein, “The Holy Alliance,” 28–35; and Schweizer, Victory, xviii, 68–69.
72. This aim of NSDD-32, which related to Poland and the Communist bloc generally, was evident in the larger April 1982 study from which NSDD-32 was derived. The study staked out this U.S. objective: “to increase the costs of Soviet repression of popular movements and institutions in Poland and other East European countries; and to maximize prospects for their independent evolution.” This, too, was striking language. Report, “U.S. National Security Strategy,” April 1982, 6.
73. Yuri Zhukov, “A Doctrine of Interference,” Pravda, June 25, 1982, 4, published as “Reagan Policy Called ‘Doctrine of Interference,’” in FBIS-6-JUL-82, July 6, 1982, A1–3.
74. Ye. Rusakov, “War Games and ‘Peace’ Games: The Path Chosen by the Reagan Administration,” Pravda, June 1, 1984, 4, published as “Rusakov: Reagan Playing Games With War, Peace,” in FBIS-5-JUN-84, June 5, 1984, A3.
75. Richard Halloran, “Reagan Aide Tells of New Strategy on Soviet Threat,” New York Times, May 22, 1982, A1.
76. Reed delivered his speech on June 16, 1982. Reed, At the Abyss, 237.
77. Richard Halloran, “Pentagon Draws Up First Strategy for Fighting a Long Nuclear War,” New York Times, May 30, 1982, A1.
78. Ibid.
79. Ibid.
80. Ibid.
81. Ibid.
CHAPTER 9
1. These three articles were: “Solidarity Activist Appeals to Troops To Defy Authority;” “Stunned Militant: ‘It’s Our Own Army. We Are Confused;’” and “Allen’s Job Expected to Go to Clark,” Washington Post, January 1, 1982, A1.
2. Reagan, “Remarks to the People of Foreign Nations on New Year’s Day,” January 1, 1982.
3. Ibid.
4. Clark in Schweizer, ed., Fall of the Berlin Wall, 69.
5. See: Edmund Morris interviewed by American Enterprise, November/December 1999; Maureen Dowd, “The Man with the President’s Ear,” Time, August 8, 1983; and Steven R. Weisman, “The Influence of William Clark,” New York Times Magazine, August 14, 1983.
CHAPTER 10
1. On this, see Kengor, God and Ronald Reagan.
2. Reagan expressed his shock and prayers to the pope in a May 13, 1981 cable on the
assassination attempt, in ES, NSC, HSF: Records, Vatican: Pope John Paul II, RRL, Box 41,
Folder “Cables 1 of 2.”
3. Interview with Bill Clark, August 24, 2001.
4. Bernstein, “The Holy Alliance,” 31
5. Ibid., 28, 30.
6. See “The Pope and the President: A key adviser reflects on the Reagan Administration,”
interview with Bill Clark, Catholic World Reporter, November 1999; and Bernstein, “Holy Alliance,” 30.
7. Bernstein, “The Holy Alliance,” 29, 35.
8. Ibid.
9. Quoted in Schweizer, Reagan’s War, 213.
10. Bernstein, “The Holy Alliance,” 28–35.
11. Reagan, “Remarks Following a Meeting With Pope John Paul II in Vatican City,” June 7, 1982.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Bernstein, “The Holy Alliance,” 28–35.
15. Ibid.
16. Bernstein and Politi, His Holiness, 260.
17. Ibid., 12.
18. This probably began as early as the spring of 1981, well before the June 1982 meeting.
19. Bernstein and Politi, His Holiness, 268–9.
20. Ibid.
21. Weigel, Witness to Hope, 622.
22. The cable is dated only “FEB 84.” The exact date is unclear, though it is before Reagan’s February 22 response letter to the pope. The cable is located in ES, NSC, HSF: Records, Vatican: Pope John Paul II, RRL, Box 41, Folder 8490136-8490538. The cable was declassified on July 18, 2000.
23. ES, NSC, HSF: Records, Vatican: Pope John Paul II, RRL, Box 41, Folder 8490136-8490538.
24. Ibid.
25. This February 22, 1984 letter is located in ES, NSC, HSF: Records, Vatican: Pope John Paul II, RRL, Box 41, Folder 8490136-8490538. The letter was declassified on July 18, 2000.
26. Though Reagan did not lift all of the sanctions, he modified them.
27. Ibid.
28. Calculating the exact number is difficult. Nancy Reagan says that she met with the pope seven times. In all likelihood, her husband equaled or exceeded that number. Nancy Reagan interview with CNN’s Wolf Blitzer, “Nancy Reagan: Pope ‘was very special,’” CNN, April 3, 2005.