109. Norman Naimark, Stalin's Genocides (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010); Vladimir Tismaneanu, “Democracy and Memory: Romania Confronts Its Commmunist Past,” in “The Politics of History in Comparative Perspective,” ed. Martin O. Heisler, special issue, Annals of the American Academy of Political Science 617 (May 2008): 166-80.
6. MALAISE AND RESENTMENT
1. See Jan Urban, “Europe's Darkest Scenario,” Washington Post, Outlook Section, October 11, 1992, pp. 1-2. See G. M. Tamás, “Post-Fascism,” in East European Constitutional Review (Summer 2000): 48-56.
2. Adam Michnik, “The Velvet Restoration,” in Revolutions of 1989, ed. Vladimir Tismaneanu (London: Routledge, 1999), pp. 244-51.
3. See Vladimir Tismaneanu, Fantasies of Salvation: Democracy, Nationalism and Myth in Post-Communist Europe (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998, paperback 2009).
4. For further interpretations of the implications of Jowitt's pioneering approach, see Vladimir Tismaneanu, Marc Howard, and Rudra Sil, eds., World Order after Leninism (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2006).
5. For a thorough analysis of the uses of the past in post-Communist Europe, see Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 (New York: Penguin Press, 2005), esp. “After the Falclass="underline" 1989-2005,” pp. 637-776; and Tony Judt, “The Past Is Another Country: Myth and Memory in Post-War Europe,” in Memory and Power in Post-War Europe: Studies in the Presence of the Past, ed. Jan-Werner Müller (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 180.
6. See William Outhwaite and Larry Ray, Social Theory and Postcommunism (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005); Krishan Kumar, 1989: Revolutionary Ideas and Ideals (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2001).
7. In this chapter I elaborate upon and revisit the main ideas I put forward in my introduction to Vladimir Tismaneanu, ed., The Revolutions of 1989 (London: Routledge, 1999); as well as Reinventing Politics: Eastern Europe from Stalin to Havel (New York: Free Press, 1992; revised and expanded paperback, with new afterword, Free Press, 1993). A previous version of this chapter appeared in Contemporary European History 18, no. 3 (2009): 271-88. I developed these ideas in a volume published in Romanian, Despre 1989 (București: Humanitas, 2009). See also Vladimir Tismaneanu, “The Demise of Leninism and the Future of Liberal Values,” in Marx's Shadow: Knowledge, Power, and Intellectuals in Eastern Europe and Russia, ed. Costica Bradatan and Serguei Alex. Oushakine (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2010), pp. 221-42; and Vladimir Tismaneanu and Bogdan Iacob, eds., The End and the Beginning: The Revolutions of 1989 and the Resurgence of History (New York and Budapest: CEU Press, 2012).
8. Eric Hobsbawn, The Age of Extremes: A History of the World, 1914-91 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1994), pp. 461-99; see also George Lichtheim, “The European Civil War,” in The Concept of Ideology and Other Essays (New York: Random House, 1967), pp. 225-37; Bernard Wasserstein, Barbarism and Civilization: A History of Europe in Our Time (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 666-704.
9. See John Keane, Civil Society: Old Images, New Visions (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1998).
10. Ernest Gellner, Conditions of Liberty: Civil Society and Its Rivals (New York: Allen Lane and Penguin Press, 1994).
11. Daniel Chirot, “What Happened in Eastern Europe in 1989,” in The Revolutions of 1989, ed. Tismaneanu, pp. 19-50; see also Raymond Taras, ed., The Road to Disillusion (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1992).
12. Stephen Kotkin with a contribution by Jan T. Gross, Uncivil Society: 1989 and the Implosion of the Communist Establishment (New York: Modern Library, 2009), p. 143.
13. Judt, Postwar, p. 584.
14. See Václav Havel's reflections on post-1989 politics in Summer Meditations (New York: Vintage Books, 1992) and To the Castle and Back (New York: Knopf, 2007).
15. For the exhaustion of ideological-style secular religions, see Agnes Heller and Ferenc Fehér, The Grandeur and Twilight of Radical Universalism (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1991); and S. N. Eisenstadt, “The Breakdown of Communist Regimes,” in The Revolutions of 1989, ed. Tismaneanu, pp. 89-107.
16. Judt, Postwar, p. 564.
17. Russian political scientist Gleb Pavlovsky quoted by Robert Horvath, The Legacy of Soviet Dissent: Dissidents, Democratisation and Radical Nationalism in Russia (London: Routledge, 2005), p. 41.
18. Krishan Kumar, 1989: Revolutionary Ideas and Ideals (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 2001).
19. Albert Hirschman, The Rhetoric of Reaction: Perversity, Futility, Jeopardy (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1991).
20. Jeffrey Isaac, Democracy in Dark Times (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997). Also by the same author, “Rethinking the Legacy of Central European Dissidence,” Common Knowledge 10, no. 1 (Winter 2004): 119-30.
21. Jeffrey Isaac, “Shades of Gray: Revisiting the Meanings of 1989,” in The Beginning and the End, ed. Tismaneanu and Iacob, pp. 555-74.
22. William Echikcson, Lighting the Night (New York: William Morrow, 1990); Vladimir Tismaneanu, Reinventing Politics; Andrew Nagorski, The Birth of Freedom: Shaping Lives and Societies in the New Eastern Europe (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993); Ivo Banac, ed. Eastern Europe in Revolution (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992).
23. Barbara J. Falk, “Resistance and Dissent in Central and Eastern Europe: An Emerging Historiography,” East European Politics and Societies 25, no. 2 (May 2011): 321-22.
24. Horvath, The Legacy, pp. 1-2. Elena Bonner was a major human rights activist, widow of the celebrated dissident and physicist Andrei Sakharov.
25. Timothy Garton Ash, The Magic Lantern: The Revolutions of ‘89 Witnessed in Warsaw, Budapest, Berlin, and Prague (New York: Vintage Books, 1993).
26. Judt, Postwar, p. 563.
27. Timothy Garton Ash, “Conclusions,” in Between Past and Future: The Revolutions of 1989 and Their Aftermath, ed. Sorin Antohi and Vladimir Tismaneanu (New York and Budapest: Central European University Press, 2000), p. 398.
28. Tony Judt, Postwar, p. 695.
29. Anne Applebaum, “1989 and All That,” Slate, November 9, 2009, http://www.anneapplebaum.com/, accessed August 6, 2011.
30. Falk, “Resistance and Dissent,” p. 349.
31. Bruce Ackerman, The Future of Liberal Revolution (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1992).
32. Judt, Postwar, p. 630.
33. Ivo Banac, ed., Eastern Europe in Revolution.
34. Jarausch further stated that “in contrast to all the earlier failures, the success of 1989 might be interpreted as a result of mounting civil resistance which initially sought to democratize socialism but ultimately dared to abolish it altogether.” See Konrad Jarausch, “People Power? Towards a Historical Explanation of 1989,” in The End and the Beginning, ed. Tismaneanu and Iacob, p. 123.