137. Ehlen, “Communist Faith and World-Explanatory Doctrine,” in Totalitarianism, ed. Maier and Schäfer, p. 129.
138. See A. James Gregor's discussion of the nationalist, mystical writings of Serghei Kurginian and Alexandr Prohanov and their influence over Zyuganov, particularly manifested in the “Declaration to the People,” the manifesto of Russian Stalino-Fascism. See A. James Gregor, The Faces of Janus: Marxism and Fascism in the Twentieth Century (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2000), pp. 144-55; and Marxism, Fascism, and Totalitarianism: Chapters in the Intellectual History of Radicalism (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2009).
139. Nikolai Chernyshevsky, What Is to Be Done? (Ithaca, N.Y., and London: Cornell University Press, 1989).
140. In addition to Jowitt's contributions, see Tucker, The Soviet Political Mind; and Robert Conquest, Reflections on a Ravaged Century (New York: Norton, 2000).
141. Luxemburg, “The Russian Revolution,” p. 375.
142. Beryl Williams, Lenin (Harlow: Logman Publishing Group, 1999), p. 73.
143. Karl Dietrich Bracher, The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure, and Effects of National Socialism, trans. Jean Steinberg with an introduction by Peter Gay (New York and Washington: Praeger Publishers, 1970), p. 152.
144. Gabriel Almond, The Appeals of Communism (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1954); Burleigh, Sacred Causes, esp. “The Totalitarian Political Religions,” pp. 38-122.
145. Bert Hoppe, “Iron Revolutionaries and Salon Socialists: Bolsheviks and German Communists in the 1920s and 1930s,” in “Fascination and Enmity: Russia and Germany as Entangled Histories, 1914-1945,” special issue, Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 10, no. 3 (Summer 2009): 509.
146. Hoffer, The True Believer.
147. Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints: A Study in the Origins of Radical Politics (New York: Atheneum, 1976), p. 315.
148. For an excellent analysis of Lefort's writings, see Howard, The Specter, 71-82.
149. Claude Lefort, La complication: Retour sur le communisme (Paris: Fayard, 1999).
150. Claude Lefort, The Political Forms of Modern Society: Bureaucracy, Democracy, Totalitarianism, ed. John B. Thompson (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1986), p. 285-86.
151. Lefort, La complication, p. 47.
152. Robert C. Tucker, “Lenin's Bolshevism as a Culture in the Making,” in Bolshevik Culture: Experiment and Order in the Bolshevik Revolution, ed. Abbott Gleason, Peter Kenez, and Richard Stites (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), pp. 26-27.
153. One can point to a whole intellectual tradition, and I am thinking here of authors such as Cornelius Castoriadis and, much earlier, Georgi Plekhanov, Yuli Martov, Pavel Akselrod, Emma Goldman, Rosa Luxemburg, Karl Kautsky, Anton Pannekoek, Ruth Fischer, Boris Souvarine, Milovan Djilas, Agnes Heller, and Leszek Kołakowski.
154. Lefort, The Political Forms, p. 297.
155. Hitler quoted in Bracher, The German Dictatorship, p. 250.
156. Maier, “Political Religions and their Images,” p. 274.
157. Peter Holquist, “New Terrains and New Chronologies: The Interwar Period through the Lens of Population Politics,” Kirtika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 4, no. 1 (Winter 2003): 171-72.
158. Sigrid Meuschel, “The Institutional Frame: Totalitarianism, Extermination and the State,” in The Lesser Eviclass="underline" Moral Approaches to Genocide Practices, ed. Helmut Dubiel and Gabriel Motzkin (Portland, Or.: Frank Cass, 2003), pp. 115-16.
159. Bosworth, Mussolini, p. 235.
160. Gorlizki and Mommsen, “The Political (Dis)Orders of Stalinism and National Socialism,” in Beyond Totalitarianism, ed. Geyer and Fitzpatrick, p. 86.
161. Michael Burleigh, “Political Religion and Social Evil,” Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 3, no. 2 (Autumn 2002): 1-2.
4. DIALECTICS OF DISENCHANTMENT
1. Kenneth Jowitt, New World Disorder: The Leninist Extinction (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992), p. 10n17.
2. See Benito Mussolini, “The Doctrine of Fascism,” in Communism, Fascism, and Democracy, ed. Carl Cohen, 3d ed. (New York: Random House, 1972), pp. 328-39.
3. See Ian Kershaw, Hitler 1936-1945: Nemesis (New York and London: Norton, 2000), esp. “Luck of the Devil,” pp. 655-84. It is worth quoting here Kershaw's remark about Hitler's extraordinary luck in surviving the attempt on his life organized by Count Stauffenberg and his co-conspirators: “In fact, as so often in his life, it had not been Providence that had saved him, but luck: the luck of the devil” (p. 584, italics mine).
4. For Zubok, “Zhivago's children” referred to a generation of intellectuals tested by the years of war, violence, and misery: “The educated cadres trained for Stalinist service turned out to be a vibrant and diverse tribe, with intellectual curiosity, artistic yearnings, and a passion for high culture. They identified not only with the Soviet collectivity, but also with humanist individualism.” Vladislav Zubok, Zhivago's Children: The Last Russian Intelligentsia (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2009), pp. 356, 361, and 21.
5. Agnes Heller and Ferenc Fehér, The Grandeur and Twilight of Radical Universalism (New Brunswick, N.J., and London: Transaction, 1991), p. 113.
6. See Vladimir Tismaneanu, “Critical Marxism and Eastern Europe,” Praxis International 3, no. 3 (October 1983): 235-47; The Crisis of Marxist Ideology in Eastern Europe: The Poverty of Utopia (London and New York: Routledge, 1988); “The Neo-Leninist Temptation: Gorbachevism and the Party Intelligentsia,” in Perestroika at the Crossroads, ed. Alfred J. Rieber and Alvin Z. Rubinstein (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1991), pp. 31-51; “From Arrogance to Irrelevance: Avatars of Marxism in Romania,” in The Road to Disillusion: From Critical Marxism to Postcommunism in Eastern Europe, ed. Raymond Taras (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1992), pp. 135-50.
7. Frederick C. Corney, “What Is to Be Done with Soviet Russia? The Politics of Proscription and Possibility” in Journal of Policy History 21, no 3 (2009): 271.
8. Philosopher Yuri Karyakin quoted in Zubok, Zhivago's Children, p. 358.
9. Robert C. Tucker, The Soviet Political Mind: Stalinism and Post-Stalin Change, rev. ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1971), pp. 148-49.
10. Klaus-Georg Riegel, “Marxism-Leninism as a Political Religion,” Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 6, no. 1 (June 2005): 97-126.
11. V. I. Lenin, What Is to be Done: Burning Questions of Our Movement (New York: International Publishers, 1969 [1902]), p. 5.
12. J. V. Stalin, Leninism (Moscow: International Publishers, 1928), p. 171.
13. For a most disturbing account of this nihilistic moment in the history of world Communism, see especially the last letters of Bukharin and Yezhov to Stalin in Arch Getty and Oleg Naumov, The Self-Destruction of the Bolshevik Old Guard (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1999). See discussion in chapter 2.
14. Czesław Miłosz, The Captive Mind (New York: Vintage Books, 1981), p. 75.