107. Kramer, “The Collapse: Part 1,” p. 214.
108. Gorbachev and Mlynář, Conversations, pp. 110-21.
109. Levesque, The Enigma of 1989, pp. 3-5 and 252-58.
110. Brown, “The Soviet Union,” p. 489.
111. Václav Havel et al., The Power of the Powerless: Citizens against the State in Central-Eastern Europe (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1985), pp. 33-34.
112. Ibid., p. 35.
113. Kramer, “The Collapse: Part 3,” pp. 69 and 94. For his discussion of the “demonstration effects” for the Soviet Union, see “The Collapse: Part 2.”
114. In making this statement, the historian invokes the authority of the founding fathers of the Soviet human rights movement, Raisa Orlova and Lev Kopelev. See Zubok, Zhivago's Children, p. 265.
115. George Konrád, Antipolitics (San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984), p. 123.
116. Falk, The Dilemmas of Dissidence, p. 313.
117. Horvath, “'The Solzhenitsyn Effect,'” p. 907. Also see Jan Plamper, “Foucault's Gulag,” Kritika: Explorations in Russ ian and Eurasian History, n.s., 3, no. 2 (Spring 2002): 255-80.
118. I am developing Neil Robinson's argument in “What Was Soviet Ideology? A Comment on Joseph Schull and an Alternative,” Political Studies 43 (1995): 325-32. See also Neil Robinson, Ideology and the Collapse of the Soviet System: A Critical History of Soviet Ideological Discourse (Aldershot and Hants: E. Elgar, 1995).
119. “There's More to Politics than Human Rights,” an interview with G. M. Tamás, Uncaptive Minds 1, no. 1 (April-May 1988): 12.
120. Miklós Haraszti, The Velvet Prison: Artists under State Socialism (New York: Basic Books, 1987).
121. Jan Josef Lipski, KOR: A History of the Workers' Defense Committee 1976-1981 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
122. Ferenc Fehér, Agnes Heller, and György Márkus, Dictatorship over Needs (London: Basil Blackwell, 1983), p. 137.
123. Brown, Rise and Fall, p. 588.
124. Johann P. Arnason, “Communism and Modernity,” in Multiple Modernities, special issue, Daedalus 129, no. 1 (Winter 2000): 61-90.
5. IDEOLOGY, UTOPIA, AND TRUTH
1. Goerge Lichtheim, Thoughts among the Ruins: Collected Essays on Europe and Beyond (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1973); Vladimir Tismaneanu, The Crisis of Marxist Ideology in Eastern Europe: The Poverty of Utopia (London and New York: Routledge, 1988); Agnes Heller and Ferenc Fehér, The Grandeur and Twilight of Radical Universalism (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1991); Melvin J. Lasky, Utopia and Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976).
2. See the discussion of Jan Patočka's concept of supercivilization in Edward F. Findlay, Caring for the Soul in a Postmodern Age: Politics and Phenomenology in the Thought of Jan Patočka (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), pp. 126-27.
3. Shlomo Avineri and Zeev Sternhell, Europe's Century of Discontent: The Legacies of Fascism, Nazism, and Communism (Jerusalem: Hebrew University Magnes Press, 2003); Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 (New York: Penguin Press, 2005); Bernard Wasserstein, Barbarism and Civilization: A History of Europe in Our Time (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
4. Bernice Glatzer Rosenthal, “Introduction,” in Nietzsche and Soviet Culture: Ally and Adversary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 17. See also Rosenthal, New Myth, New World—from Nietzsche to Stalinism (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002).
5. See the discussion on totalitarian experiments and secular religions in Raymond Aron, The Dawn of Universal History: Selected Essays from a Witness to the Twentieth Century, intro. Tony Judt (New York: Basic Books, 2002); Robert Conquest, Reflections on a Ravaged Century (New York: Norton, 2000), pp. 5784; Abbott Gleason, Totalitarianism: The Inner History of the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995).
6. See Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973), pp. 458 and 459.
7. Michael Geyer, “Introduction,” in Beyond Totalitarianism: Stalinism and Nazism Compared, ed. Michael Geyer and Sheila Fitzpatrick (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 28.
8. Jacob L. Talmon, Myth of the Nation and Vision of Revolution: Ideological Polarizations in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1991); and George Lichtheim, The Concept of Ideology and Other Essays (New York: Random House, 1967).
9. Leszek Kołakowski, Main Currents of Marxism: The Founders, the Golden Age, the Breakdown, trans. P. S. Falla (New York: W. W. Norton, 2005), p. 1214.
10. Bernard Yack, The Longing for Total Revolution: Philosophic Sources of Social Discontent from Rousseau to Marx and Nietzsche (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986).
11. Findlay, Caring for the Soul, p. 157.
12. Ferenc Fehér, “Marxism as Politics: An Obituary,” Problems of Communism 41, nos. 1-2 (January-April 1992): 11-17.
13. Robert C. Tucker, Philosophy and Myth in Karl Marx (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1972).
14. Lucien Goldmann, Marxisme et sciences humaines (Paris: Gallimard, 1970).
15. Robert C. Tucker, ed., The Marx-Engels Reader, 2d ed. (New York and London: W. W. Norton), p. 488.
16. Ibid., p. 500. It is noteworthy that all Communist newspapers in the USSR, China, and other Soviet-style regimes, as well as Communist dailies in non-Marxist countries, carried the exhortatory last sentence of the Manifesto at the top of the front page, above their title. It is also significant that when Václav Havel described the “emptyfication” of ideological rituals in Leninist regimes, he resorted to the parable of a greengrocer who would discover his liberty and reinvent himself as a citizen by refusing to place in the window, on May i, the party-provided poster with the by now meaningless words “Workers of all countries unite!”
17. Ibid., pp. 482-83.
18. Ibid., pp. 483-84.
19. Rosa Luxemburg quoted in Lars T. Lih, Lenin Rediscovered: “What Is to Be Done?” in Context (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2008), p. 527.