So far, I have been using temporary terminology which suggests that one of the many parallel universes differs from the others by being ‘tangible’. It is time to sever that last link with the classical, single-universe conception of reality. Let us go back to our frog. We have seen that the story of the frog that stares at the distant torch for days at a time, waiting for the flicker that comes on average once a day, is not the whole story, because there must also be shadow frogs, in shadow universes that co-exist with the tangible one, also waiting for photons. Suppose that our frog is trained to jump when it sees a flicker. At the beginning of the experiment, the tangible frog will have a large set of shadow counterparts, all initially alike. But shortly afterwards they will no longer all be alike. Any particular one of them is unlikely to see a photon immediately. But what is a rare event in any one universe is a common event in the multiverse as a whole. At any instant, somewhere in the multiverse, there are a few universes in which one of the photons is currently striking the retina of the frog in that universe. And that frog jumps.
Why exactly does it jump? Because within its universe it obeys the same laws of physics as tangible frogs do, and its shadow retina has been struck by a shadow photon belonging to that universe. One of the light-sensitive shadow molecules in that shadow retina has responded by undergoing complex chemical changes, to which the shadow frog’s optic nerve has in turn responded. It has transmitted a message to the shadow frog’s brain, and the frog has consequently experienced the sensation of seeing a flicker.
Or should I say ‘the shadow sensation of seeing a flicker’? Surely not. If ‘shadow’ observers, be they frogs or people, are real, then their sensations must be real too. When they observe what we might call a shadow object, they observe that it is tangible. They observe this by the same means, and according to the same definition, as we apply when we say that the universe we observe is ‘tangible’. Tangibility is relative to a given observer. So objectively there are not two kinds of photon, tangible and shadow, nor two kinds of frog, nor two kinds of universe, one tangible and the rest shadow. There is nothing in the description I have given of the formation of shadows, or any of the related phenomena, that distinguishes between the ‘tangible’ and the ‘shadow’ objects, apart from the mere assertion that one of the copies is ‘tangible’. When I introduced tangible and shadow photons I apparently distinguished them by saying that we can see the former, but not the latter. But who are ‘we’? While I was writing that, hosts of shadow Davids were writing it too. They too drew a distinction between tangible and shadow photons; but the photons they called ‘shadow’ include the ones I called ‘tangible’, and the photons they called ‘tangible’ are among those I called ‘shadow’.
Not only do none of the copies of an object have any privileged position in the explanation of shadows that I have just outlined, neither do they have a privileged position in the full mathematical explanation provided by quantum theory. I may feel subjectively that I am distinguished among the copies as the ‘tangible’ one, because I can directly perceive myself and not the others, but I must come to terms with the fact that all the others feel the same about themselves.
Many of those Davids are at this moment writing these very words. Some are putting it better. Others have gone for a cup of tea.
photon A particle of light.
tangible/shadow For the purposes of exposition in this chapter only, I called particles in this universe tangible, and particles in other universes shadow particles.
multiverse The whole of physical reality. It contains many parallel universes.
parallel universes They are ‘parallel’ in the sense that within each universe particles interact with each other just as they do in the tangible universe, but each universe affects the others only weakly, through interference phenomena.
quantum theory The theory of the physics of the multiverse.
quantization The property of having a discrete (rather than continuous) set of possible values. Quantum theory gets its name from its assertion that all measurable quantities are quantized. However, the most significant quantum effect is not quantization but interference.
interference The effect of a particle in one universe on its counterpart in another. Photon interference can cause shadows to be much more complicated than mere silhouettes of the obstacles causing them.
In interference experiments there can be places in a shadow-pattern that go dark when new openings are made in the barrier casting the shadow. This remains true even when the experiment is performed with individual particles. A chain of reasoning based on this fact rules out the possibility that the universe we see around us constitutes the whole of reality. In fact the whole of physical reality, the multiverse, contains vast numbers of parallel universes.
Quantum physics is one of the four main strands of explanation. The next strand is epistemology, the theory of knowledge.
3
Problem-solving
I do not know which is stranger — the behaviour of shadows itself, or the fact that contemplating a few patterns of light and shadow can force us to revise so radically our conception of the structure of reality. The argument I have outlined in the previous chapter is, notwithstanding its controversial conclusion, a typical piece of scientific reasoning. It is worth reflecting on the character of this reasoning, which is itself a natural phenomenon at least as surprising and full of ramifications as the physics of shadows.
To those who would prefer reality to have a more prosaic structure, it may seem somehow out of proportion — unfair, even — that such momentous consequences can flow from the fact that a tiny spot of light on a screen should be here rather than there. Yet they do, and this is by no means the first time in the history of science that such a thing has happened. In this respect the discovery of other universes is quite reminiscent of the discovery of other planets by early astronomers. Before we sent space probes to the Moon and planets, all our information about planets came from spots of light (or other radiation) being observed in one place rather than another. Consider how the original, defining fact about planets — the fact that they are not stars — was discovered. Watching the night sky for a few hours, one sees that the stars appear to revolve about a particular point in the sky. They revolve rigidly, holding fixed positions relative to one another. The traditional explanation was that the night sky was a huge ‘celestial sphere’ revolving around the fixed Earth, and that the stars were either holes in the sphere or glowing embedded crystals. However, among the thousands of points of light in the sky visible to the naked eye, there are a handful of the brightest which, over longer periods, do not move as if they were fixed on a celestial sphere. They wander about the sky in more complex motions. They are called ‘planets’, from the Greek word meaning ‘wanderer’. Their wandering was a sign that the celestial-sphere explanation was inadequate.