Cara, P. C. de, Gli Hethei-Pelasgi. Rome, 1895.—Cartwright, J., Travels through Syria, Mesopotamia, etc. London, 1911.—Cassas, L. F., Voyage Pittoresque en Syrie. Paris, 1799.—Cavaniol, H., Les monuments en Chaldée, en Assyrie et à Babylone. Paris, 1870.—Clercq, L. de, Antiquités assyriennes. Paris, 1888.—Cloquet, L., L’art monumental des égyptiens et des assyriens. Paris, 1896.
Delattre, A. J., Esquisse de géographie assyrienne. Paris, 1883; Les inscriptions historiques de Ninive, etc. Paris, 1879; L’Asie occid. dans les inscriptions assyriennes. Brussels, 1885; L’assyriologie depuis onze ans. Paris, 1891; L’exactitude en histoire d’après un Assyriologiste. Louvain, 1888.—Delitzsch, Friedrich, Die Entstehung des ältestens Schriftsystems. Leipsic, 1897; Handel, Recht und Sitte im alten Babylonien (in Velhagen and Klasing’s Monatshefte, Jahr. 13, Vol. II, p. 47. Berlin, 1899); Assyrische Studien. Leipsic, 1874.
Friedrich Delitzsch, the son of Franz Delitzsch, was born at Erlangen, September 3, 1850. Professor of Assyriology in the University of Berlin, he devoted himself to the study of Assyriology, and attained a wide reputation as an Assyriologist. He was appointed Professor of Assyriology at the University of Leipsic. His writings have been mostly upon the subject of Assyria and ancient Assyrian life, and he has made some translations from the works of other historians, notably George Smith’s Chaldean Account of Genesis. He made a deep sensation in Germany in 1902 by his lecture on “Babel and the Bible,” in which he pointed out the similarity of the story of Moses in the bulrushes to the ancient legend of the birth of Sargon I, king of Babylon; noted the Babylonian custom of resting every seventh day, the word being shabattu (whence Sabbath), and many other points in which the Babylonian influence is shown in the Bible.
Dieulafoy, J., La Perse et la Chaldée. Paris, 1887.—Diodorus, S., The Historical Library, London, 1700.—Duncker, M., Geschichte des Alterthums. Leipsic, 1878, 6 vols. English translation: The History of Antiquity. London, 1880, 6 vols.
Edwards, C., The Witness of Assyria. London, 1893.—Epping, C., Astronomisches aus Babylon. Freiburg, 1889.—Evans, G., An Essay on Assyriology. London, 1883.—Evetts, B. T. A., Cylinders of Sennacherib. London, 1889; Inscription of the Reign of Evil-Merodach, Neriglissar and Laborosoarchod. Leipsic, 1892.
Feer, H. L., Les Ruines de Ninive. Paris, 1864.—Ferguson, J., The Palaces of Niniveh and Persepolis Restored. London, 1857.—Fontane, M., Histoire Universelle. Paris, 1881-1889, 6 vols.
Marius Fontane was born at Marseilles, September 4, 1838. He was destined to follow a commercial career, and was sent by a French house in Marseilles to represent it in the Orient. While there he was brought into relations with M. Ferdinand de Lesseps, and became his private secretary. Through the efforts of M. de Lesseps, Fontane was successively associated as secretary-general to the Suez and Panama Canal Companies. M. Fontane was early drawn into literary work, and in spite of his official duties found time to devote much attention to political economy, religion, learning, and history in all its branches. In his Universal History he devotes much space to questions of race and primitive religions in the historical evolution of humanity. Marius Fontane has come into prominence largely through his writings on the subject of history, but also through his explorations in the countries lying about the Isthmus of Suez.
Fradenburg, J. N., Fire from Strange Altars. Cincinnati, 1891.—Fraser, J. B., Mesopotamia and Assyria, from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time. New York, 1892.
Gatschet, A. S., Historic Documents from the XIVth Century B.C. (In Amer. Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 121. Washington, 1897.)—Ginzel, F. K., Die astronomischen Kentnisse der Babylonier und ihre culturhistorische Bedeutung. Leipsic, 1901.—Goss, W. H., Hebrew Captives of the Kings of Assyria. London, 1890.—Guyard, S., Mélanges d’Assyriologie. Paris, 1883.—Goodspeed, George S., A History of Babylonia and Assyria. New York, 1903.
Halévy, J., Documents religieux de l’Assyrie. Paris, 1882; La nouvelle évolution de l’accadisme. Paris, 1878; Aperçu grammatical sur l’allographie assyro-babylonienne. Paris, 1885; Essai sur les inscriptions du Safa. Paris, 1882; Recherches critiques sur l’origine de la civilisation babylonienne. Paris, 1876.
Joseph Halévy, of Jewish origin, was born at Adrianople, December 15, 1827. He came to study at Paris, and became a naturalised Frenchman. In 1868 he visited northern Abyssinia to study the Jewish religion of the Falashas. (The Falashas are a Hamitic tribe which professes the Jewish religion, and claims descent from Hebrew immigrants who followed the queen of Sheba.) In 1869 he was sent to Yemen on a mission of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres. He remained there two years, and brought back six hundred and eighty-three Sabaic inscriptions. In 1872 he received a gold medal from the Société de Géographie and the Volney prize from the Institut. He afterwards became Professor of Ethiopian at the École pratique des hautes études. He was one of the most active collaborators in the Journal Asiatique, and wrote frequently on the most disputed questions concerning the philology and the archæology of the East to the Académie des Inscriptions. His theories as to the origins of the Mesopotamian peoples and languages made a profound impression on all the scholarly world, and while they have met with bitter opposition they are entitled to all the consideration that is due to such deep and tireless research.
Harkness, M. E., Assyrian Life and History. London, 1883.—Harper, R. F., Assyrian and Babylonian Letters. London, 1892-1902, 8 vols.—Havet, E., Mémoire sur la date des écrits. Paris.—Heeren, A. H. L., Historical Researches, etc. Oxford, 1839, 2nd ed., 5 vols.—Hegel, G. W. F., Lectures on the Philosophy of History. London, 1857.—Helm, O. (in collab. with Hilprecht, H. V.), Chemische Untersuchung von altbabylonischen Kupferund Bronze-Gegenständen und deren Alters-Bestimmung (in Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop. Verh.). Berlin, 1901.—Herder, J. G. von, Outlines of the Philosophy of History of Man. London, 1803, 2 vols.
Johann Gottfried von Herder was born at Mohrungen, East Prussia, August 25, 1744. His education was mostly private. His first writings appeared when he was about twenty years of age. His first considerable work, Fragmente über die neure deutsche Literatur, appeared in 1767. This work attracted the favourable attention of Lessing, and made him widely known. In 1776 he obtained the post of upper court preacher and upper member of the Consistory at Weimar. At this post he passed the rest of his life. “He possessed a power of intuition which must be considered in many cases as prophetic, and which made him a pathfinder whose traces are followed up to the present day.” His Study of the Philosophy of History will naturally be compared with the work on the same subject by his contemporary Hegel. It created almost a furor of excitement in its day, and may still be read with interest and profit by every earnest student of history. Its essential attitude of mind appears peculiarly archaic in our day, evidencing the utterly changed point of view from which history is regarded in our generation. Herder, like most other philosophical historians of his time, saw everywhere the hand of God in history, and was firmly imbued with the idea that all human events were but the working out of a divine plan, the broad outlines of which had been fully revealed to man. The modern historian tries to be a scientist rather than a philosopher, and he finds scant proof of this basis on which Herder worked, but views or attempts to view the course of world-history as a candid or impartial investigator of facts and of rational human motives, feeling by no means sure that he grasps the full import of any metaphysical theological bearings of these facts and motives, if such there be. Yet for this very reason the writings of Herder have a peculiar value, as they not alone evidence the mental grasp of the age in which they were written, but serve at the same time to point out a significant difference between that time and our own.