[13] The name was extended to the whole peninsula, a country extremely poor as a whole. Ἀραβία ἔρημος, Arabia Deserta, stood only for the Syrian desert, and the Arab country to the southwest, with Petra as its capital, is Ἀραβία Πετραία, Arabia Petræa, as in Ptolemy, and elsewhere.
[14] Genesis xxxvii, 25.
[15] Reste arabischen Heidenthums, II, 93.
[16] For a lively description of it see Wellhausen, Reste, II, 89 seqq.
[17] See, for example, Joshua xi, 20; 1 Samuel xv, 33.
[18] S. Nilus in Migne, Patrol. græca, 79, lxxix, 611 seqq.
[19] The translation of salat by “prayer” gives rise to misunderstandings. It is a religious exercise performed according to strict rule, with set formulæ and ceremonies (bending of the body, prostration, etc.). Voluntary prayer is du’a.
[20] The historical works of this admirable scholar deserve the strongest recommendation, particularly his Culturgeschichte des Orients unter den Chalifen, 2 vols. Vienna, 1875-1877.
[21] Babylonia (Arab Irak) should not be included, as is often done, in the term Mesopotamia, which last should be restricted to the very different region to the north, known in Arabic as Jezira.
[22] The portions of northern Africa west of Egypt and the Moslem parts of western Europe (Spain).
[23] “All men are become Arabs” was said in the year 728 or 729, in reference to an Iranian stock converted to Islam. Those who thus spoke would have used the word Tadjik for Arab (vide supra, p. 4); the Arabic chronicle restores Arab.
[24] Goldziher has rendered a most important service by proving how slight the importance of this form is on purely historic grounds, and how everything that passed as valid in certain circles was ascribed without more ado to the prophet himself. See particularly Part II of his Muhammedanische Studien (Halle, 1890).
[25] But “the most precious heritage in art, poetry, and history, which the Greek spirit has bequeathed to us was never accessible to Orientals.” (T. J. de Boer, Geschichte der philosophie in Islam, Stuttgart 1901, p. 26.)
[26] The Arabs deserve great credit for the mere fact that they adopted that brilliant invention, the Hindu numerical system, and passed it on to the Europeans. It is singular that the latter continued so frequently to employ the extremely inconvenient Roman numerals.
[27] Cf. Snoucke-Hurgronge, Mekka (two parts, The Hague, 1888 and 1889).
[28] Cf. de Goeje, Mem. sur les Carmathes de Bahraïn et les Fatimides (Leide, 1886). In this connection we may observe that in our own days the Dutch, with de Goeje at their head, have rendered far greater services in the elucidation of the history and geography of the Arabs than the schools of any of the great nations.
HISTORY IN OUTLINE OF PARTHIANS, SASSANIDS, AND ARABS
We turn back now to the scene of the earlier history, turning back in time also. The events of three great empires will pass quickly before the view, the period of time involved being more than seventeen hundred years. The territories occupied by the peoples under consideration were wide, and the peoples themselves successively dominated the eastern world, and contested supremacy there with Rome. Of the Parthians and Sassanids it must be said that, while important in holding Rome back, they had otherwise an inconsiderable influence in the West; moreover, Rome could not have retained the Orient even had she conquered it. As regards the culture influence of the Parthians and Sassanids in Europe, this was virtually nil. The case is quite different when we come to the Arabs. Here was a race which not only became dominant in the East, but seriously threatened to overthrow and supplant the entire civilisation of Europe; and which, foiled in this, retained supremacy in the East and developed an indigenous culture that powerfully influenced all Christendom.
It must be understood that the relations between the Parthians, Sassanids, and Arabs is geographical and chronological rather than ethnological. The Parthians were overthrown by the Sassanids, and the Sassanids by the Arabs. The three peoples successively ruled over similar territories, and their histories may advantageously be considered in sequence; but it will be understood that they represented different races and bore to one another merely the relation of the conquered to the conqueror. An outline of the history of Armenia is appended, to give completeness to the subject, much as we gave chronologies of various other minor nations of Western Asia in a previous volume.
THE PARTHIAN EMPIRE (250 B.C.-228 A.D.)
B.C. During the reign of the Seleucid king Antiochus II, Diodotus, viceroy of Bactria, seizes the northeastern provinces and assumes the title of king. The formation of this kingdom is not agreeable to the chiefs of the desert tribes who, under the Seleucid rule, have never felt direct control, and some of them migrate into Parthia. Among them are two brothers, Arsaces and Tiridates, of the Parnians. In a quarrel which arises between them and Pherecles, presumably satrap of Astauene, the latter is slain and Arsaces is proclaimed king in Asaak, northwest of Parthia.
250 Foundation of an independent monarchy by Arsaces I. Antiochus, on account of civil and foreign wars, is unable to proceed against Arsaces.
248 Death of Arsaces. His brother, Tiridates, succeeds, taking the name of Arsaces, which is also borne by all his successors as a throne name. They take the title of “king of kings.”
242 After defeat of Seleucus Callinicus at Ancyra, Tiridates invades Parthia, slays the eparch Andragores, and takes possession of the province. He next seizes Hyrcania, and causes a large army to oppose Seleucus.
238 Decisive victory of Tiridates over Seleucus. The latter is obliged to return to Antioch on account of civil war, and Tiridates is enabled to consolidate his kingdom.
211 Death of Tiridates. His son, Arsaces II, sometimes, but incorrectly, called Artabanus, succeeds.
209 Antiochus the Great wins a victory over Arsaces on the summit of Mount Labus. The Parthians retire to Sirynca and are besieged by Antiochus. Surrender of Sirynca, and treaty of peace. Arsaces retains Parthia, but is reduced to a vassal of Antiochus. Parthia remains undisturbed for some years.
191 Phriapatius or Arsaces (III) Philadelphus succeeds his father. Owing to the decay of Seleucid power, he acts as protector of the Greeks in his kingdom.
176 Phraates I or Arsaces (IV) Theopator succeeds his father. He conquers the Mardians.
171 Phraates dies, leaving the throne to his brother, Mithridates I or Arsaces (V) Epiphanes, who at once annexes several satrapies of Bactria to his kingdom. He holds court in Hyrcania.
155 At death of King Eucratides of Bactria, Mithridates continues the conquest of that country. The Hindu Kush becomes the eastern boundary of Parthia. Mithridates turns to the west.
147 The province of Babylonia is wrested from the Seleucids. The East is finally lost to the Macedonians.
139 Capture of Demetrius II of Syria, who has attempted to establish himself in Mesopotamia.
138 Successful campaign in Elymais. Death of Mithridates. He has made Parthia a great power. His son, Phraates II or Arsaces (VI) Euergetes, succeeds. He adds Margiana to the kingdom. The seat of the kingdom is transferred to Media.