42 Vardanes recovers throne, owing to Gotarzes’ cruelties. Civil war results.
43 Vardanes captures Seleucia, and Gotarzes retires to Hyrcania.
45 Gotarzes makes unsuccessful attempt to regain throne.
46 Vardanes murdered while hunting. Gotarzes again takes throne.
47 On account of Gotarzes’ misrule, the Parthians ask Claudius to give them Meherdates (Mithridates V) son of Vonones as king.
50 Gotarzes captures Meherdates on his way to Parthia.
51 Death of Gotarzes succeeded by Vonones II, formerly king of Media and probably brother of Artabanus III.
54 Death of Vonones succeeded by his eldest son, Vologases I, who is the son of a concubine; but to compensate his brothers, Vologases puts Pacorus on the throne of Media and Tiridates on that of Armenia—having deposed Radamistus the usurper from the latter country. A son of Vardanes contests the throne with Vologases and apparently has the upper hand for a while.
55 The Romans compel the Parthians to evacuate Armenia.
58 Vologases again attacks Armenia and brings on war with Rome. Revolt of Hyrcania. Corbulo destroys Artaxarta and occupies Tigranocerta (59).
61 Peace restored in Hyrcania.
62 War with Rome resumed. The Romans are repulsed.
63 Corbulo crosses the Euphrates, and the Parthians sue for peace.
72 The Alani drive Pacorus of Media from his throne.
75 The Alani enter Parthia. Vologases appeals in vain to Vespasian.
78 About this date Vologases dies. He seems to have been succeeded by two kings, Vologases II and Pacorus II, probably brothers, and reigning together.
81 Artabanus IV appears to be the king in this year. He protects Terentius Maximus, who pretends to be Nero. Parthia is torn with civil wars.
93 Pacorus II is sole king.
110 Pacorus sells the crown of Edessa to Abgar VII. Death of Pacorus. His brother (or perhaps son) Chosroes or Osroes succeeds. Vologases II reappears as a rival king, also a Mithridates or Meherdates VI. Parthia is completely upset with civil war which goes on until
113 Chosroes wrests Armenia from King Exedares and gives it to Parthamariris, both sons of Pacorus.
114 The emperor Trajan, indignant at Chosroes’ act, seizes Armenia and makes it a Roman province.
115 Trajan takes Ctesiphon and Seleucia.
116 Revolt in Parthia with Mithridates VI at its head. Death of Mithridates, and his son Sinatruces takes his place. Chosroes regains Nisibis, Seleucia, and Edessa.
117 Trajan crowns Parthamaspates king of Parthia, deposing Chosroes. Death of Trajan. Hadrian withdraws Roman soldiers and Chosroes recovers throne. Parthamaspates expelled.
130 About this date Chosroes dies and Vologases II rules as sole king. The influence of Rome preserves peace in the kingdom.
148 Death of Vologases, aged ninety-six, having reigned seventy-one years. Vologases III succeeds. He continues the peace with Rome until,
162 when, after death of Antoninus Pius, Vologases enters Armenia and expels the king. The greatest war between Rome and Parthia ensues.
164 Aridius Cassius drives Vologases from Syria, enters Babylonia, and burns Seleucia, the most important city of the East.
165 Great plague, originating in Parthia, spreads over the whole world.
166 Peace with Rome. Mesopotamia becomes a Roman province. Parthia begins steadily to decline.
191 Death of Vologases III. Vologases IV succeeds.
194 Vologases permits the Medes to assist Orrhœne in revolt against the Romans.
196 The Parthians ravage Mesopotamia.
199 Severus surprises the Parthians and takes Seleucia, Coche, and Ctesiphon.
201 Siege of Atra by Severus, who is compelled to raise it.
209 Vologases succeeded by his son, Vologases V.
213 His brother, Artabanus (IV), appears as a claimant of the throne. Civil war.
215 Caracalla demands the surrender of Tiridates, brother of Vologases IV, who has taken refuge with Vologases V. The latter refuses to give him up. Caracalla declares war, and the exile is delivered up. Artabanus gains the upper hand and holds Ctesiphon. Caracalla declares war on Artabanus on the latter’s refusal to give his daughter to the Roman emperor.
216 The Romans penetrate to Arbela.
217 On death of Caracalla an immense Parthian force invades Mesopotamia. Macrinus defeated and purchases peace.
222 Artabanus replaces his brother over the whole of Parthia.
224 Ardashir, the Sassanian king of Persis (or Persia), invades Parthia, taking several cities.
227 Battle of Hormizdjan. Victory of Ardashir and death of Artabanus.
228 Ardashir completes his conquest. End of the Parthian empire. THE EMPIRE OF THE SASSANIDS (228-651 A.D.)
While the Arsacids were ruling their kingdom and lording it over the minor kings of the neighbouring country, the rulers of Persis (or Persia proper) seem to have occupied an isolated position and not been included in the Parthian empire. At the beginning of the third century A.D. the kings of Persia have lost all power of keeping the empire together; all the land is ruled by a number of local potentates. One of these is Pabak, son and descendant of a certain Sasan of Khir. Pabak conquers considerable territory beyond his own dominions. On his death the succession of Shapur or Sapor, the eldest son, is disputed by Ardashir, a younger son. Sapor dies suddenly and Ardashir puts his other brother to death, and settles himself on his throne in 211 or 212 A.D. About 224 he invades the land of the “great king” Artabanus IV of Parthia, and by 228 the conquest is complete and the title of “great king” devolves upon Ardashir. He makes his capital at Ctesiphon.
228 Foundation of the Sassanian empire by Ardashir or Artaxerxes. He passes his reign in extending and consolidating his empire.
236-238 War with Rome. Nisibis and Carrhæ taken.
241 Death of Ardashir. His son Shapur or Sapor I succeeds.
242 Sapor penetrates to Antioch but is driven back by the Romans.
244 Philippus concludes a humiliating peace with Sapor. Peace reigns until
251 when Sapor invades Armenia and puts the king to flight. The Persians now make repeated invasions of Syria.
258 The Roman emperor Valerian takes the field against the Persians.
260 Capture of Valerian by Sapor. He proceeds towards Asia Minor but is repulsed by Odenathus, king of Palmyra, who lays siege to Ctesiphon. Sapor acquires no permanent gain of territory. In his reign Mani preaches his doctrines tending to the amalgamation of Christianity and Zoroastrianism, and leading to the formation of the Manichæan sect.
272 or 273 Sapor succeeded by his son Hormuz (Hormizd) or Hormisdas I.
274 Death of Hormuz and accession of his brother (?) Bahram or Varanes I—a weak prince, given to pleasure. Mani executed in his reign. Persecution of the Manichæans and Christians.
277 Bahram or Varanes II succeeds his father. He wars with Rome, ending
282 with a peace with Probus.
283 After murder of Probus, Carus invades Persia, takes Ctesiphon and Coche, and dies suddenly. There are civil wars, probably led by a brother of the king, assisted by the barbarous tribes in the northwest.
294 Death of Bahram. The throne seems to be contested by Bahram or Varanes III, probably a son of Hormuz, who reigns a short time, and Narses or Narseh, who soon gains the upper hand.
297 Narseh occupies Armenia and defeats the Roman general Galerius.
298 Peace with Rome after a great defeat of Narseh by Galerius. Armenia and Mesopotamia ceded to Rome. Peace lasts forty years.
303 Abdication of Narseh in favour of his son Hormuz II.