49
Pizarro, Francisco (1471–1541),
64
Plato (427?–347
B.C.
),
16
,
34
,
48
,
93
,
94
political views,
73
–76
Plutarch (46?–?120),
55
Poland,
68
Pombal, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Mello, Marqués de (1699–1782),
64
Pompey the Great (106–48
B.C.
),
39
,
76
Pope, Alexander (1688–1744),
68
population,
21
–22,
66
Portugal,
64
Presbyterians,
47
–48
prices and price control,
59
–61
progress,
95
–102
definition of,
97
–98
proletariat,
76
prostitution,
40
Protagoras (5th century
B.C.
),
93
Protestantism,
76
Protestant Reformation,
see
R
EFORMATION
Protestant sects,
47
Ptolemies,
59
–60
Puchberg, Michael (fl. 1788),
41
puritanism,
50
race,
25
–31,
79
Reformation, Protestant,
24
,
47
,
49
,
57
,
64
Reggio Calabria, Greek colony at,
29
religion,
31
,
43
–51,
51
,
93
,
95
,
96
,
99
Religious Wars, French,
45
,
82
Renaissance,
16
,
28
,
40
,
53
,
95
,
101
Renan, Ernest (1823–92),
50
,
69
Republic
(Plato),
73
–74
Restoration England,
40
,
65
revolution,
54
,
71
,
72
,
74
,
75
Richelieu, Armand-Jean du Plessis de, Cardinal (1585–1642),
68
Robespierre, Maximilien de (1758–94),
49
Roman Catholic Church,
23
,
46
,
49
,
57
,
71
,
89
,
96
in the U.S.,
23
,
48
and the state,
44
,
45
in France,
47
,
50
Rome (empire),
23
,
39
,
40
,
44
,
75
,
76
,
99
fall of,
21
,
27
,
42
,
54
civilization of,
28
,
29
,
79
,
94
morals in,
40
,
41
,
76
conquest of Egypt,
52
–53,
60
class strife in,
55
–57,
69
socialism in,
60
–61
and the Pax Romana,
69
,
86
conquest of Greece,
73
Rosenberg, Alfred (1893–1946),
26
Rothschild family,
54
Rousseau, Jean Jacques (1712–78),
49
,
53
,
70
,
77
,
93
Russia,
16
,
53
,
65
,
66
,
71
,
98
Communist society,
20
,
51
early history,
27
–28
industrialization of,
83
Russian Revolution,
53
,
65
,
66
,
71
Sahara,
15
Saint-Simon, Claude-Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de (1760–1825),
89
–90
Salamis, Battle of (480
B.C.
),
16
Sanskrit,
27
Sappho (b. 612?
B.C.
),
29
Saxons,
27
,
30
Scandinavia,
27
,
84
Scarlatti, Domenico (1685–1757),
41
science,
12
,
60
,
62
,
99
and religion,
39
,
47
and war,
49
,
82
,
95
–96
sculpture,
97
Scythians,
27
Semites,
29
September Massacres (1792),
53
,
72
serfdom,
61
,
65
Seven Years’ War,
82
sex,
22
,
35
,
36
,
38
,
39
,
42
,
88
,
96
Shakespeare, William (1564–1616),
100
Shamash,
44
Shelley, Percy Bysshe (1792–1822),
87
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley (1751–1816),
100
Sicily,
28
Sistine Chapel,
48
slavery,
44
,
45
,
54
,
62
,
72
,
76
,
92
social contract,
90
socialism,
52
,
58
–67,
88
,
89
,
90
Socrates (470?–399
B.C.
),
39
,
73
Solon (638?–?558
B.C.
),
29
,
55
–56,
57
,
73
Sophists,
41
,
49
South America,
30
,
53
,
84
Spain,
24
,
53
,
64
,
83
Spanish Armada,
16
Sparta,
27
,
29
Spencer, Herbert (1820–1903),
93
Spengler, Oswald (1880–1936),
89
–90,
91
states, rise of,
90
–91
Study of History, A
(Toynbee),
69
*
Sulla, Lucius Cornelius (138–78
B.C.
),
39
Sumeria,
13
,
59
Sweden,
79
Switzerland,
23
,
79
Sylvester I, Pope (r. 314–335),
45
Syracuse, Greek colony at,
29
Syria,
29
Szuma Ch’ien (
B.C.
145
B.C.
),
61
Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe (1828–93),
72
*
Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles-Maurice de (1754–1838),
90
Taranto, Greek colony at,
29
Tatars,
83
taxation,
56
,
59
–63,
66
,
92
Ten Commandments,
40
,
44
Teutons,
26
,
30
Thales of Miletus (fl. 600
B.C.
),
29
Thirty Years’ War,
28
,
45
Thrasymachus (fl. 5th century
B.C.
),
39
,
93
Thucydides (471?–?400
B.C.
),
73
,
100
Tiberius, Emperor of Rome (r. 14–37),
84
Tours, battle of (732),
24
,
83
Toynbee, Arnold J. (1889– ),
69
*
trade routes,
15
,
16
,
53
,
92
Trajan, Emperor of Rome (r. 98–117),
69
Treitschke, Heinrich von (1834–96),
26
Trichinopoly,
29
Trotsky, Leon (1877–1940),
66
Umbrians,
27
United States of America,
20
,
21
,
26
,
30
,
31
,
42
,
71