In 63 Pompey the Great defeated Mithridates, king of Pontus. With his long-lasting settlement of the provinces and kingdoms of the Middle East, Rome became the unchallenged superpower of the classical world, and remained so for centuries. Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek
The great orator Cicero believed that the Roman constitution was nearly perfect, despite all the evidence that it was in a state of terminal decay. He looked back with pride to a glorious past. He was put to death for defending the Republic he loved by those who worked to destroy it and replace it with an autocracy. Capitoline Museums, Rome
The Forum Romanum was the public square in the heart of ancient Rome. Here were the Senate House, the Comitium, or place of public assembly, the law courts (held in the open air), shops, and temples. As this panoramic view shows, all that remains are pillaged ruins. In the center stands the columned frontage of the temple of Saturn behind which can be seen the arch of the emperor Septimius Severus and, beyond, the plain brick wall and pediment of the Curia Julia, the Senate House. On the right are the foundations of a shopping mall and business center, the Basilica Julia, in the distance three tall columns of the temple of Castor and Pollux and on their left the white fragment of the circular temple of Vesta, where the city’s sacred flame was kept. (Photo: Arnold Dekker)
Roman authors say little of the life of the people, but structures, objects, and carvings have survived that throw light on everyday pursuits. The rich lived in spacious luxury, as can be seen in first-century A.D. Pompeii (Photo: S. H. O’Leary), but most urban Romans made do with one or two rooms in apartment blocks, or insulae, like this one (restored) in Ostia.
There were few facilities for cooking at home in an insula and eating out was popular, as at this bistro with a heated bar for keeping food warm (Photo: Daniele Florio). It is backed by a fresco that shows the spirit of the house flanked by the household gods, with Mercury, god of business and commerce, on the far left and Bacchus, god of wine, on the far right.
Sex was widely available, and often for sale; this bedroom fresco gave stimulation and guidance to its occupants. Brothels thrived. So too did old-fashioned male attitudes, as a Pompeiian wall graffito indicated. “If Venus can break my tender heart, why can’t I hit her over the head?” (Photo: Heinrich Stürzl)
TIME LINE
Dates in italics are traditional and legendary. Some traditional dates are judged likely to be historical. Some people and places are listed here whose names, to avoid an excess of detail, do not appear in the main text.
1084
Fall of Troy.
753
Romulus founds Rome.
c. 625
Earliest evidence of contact with the Etruscans.
753–715
Romulus.
715–673
Numa Pompilius.
673–642
Tullus Hostilius.
642–616
Ancus Marcius.
617–579
Tarquinius Priscus.
579–534
Servius Tullius.
534–510
Tarquinius Superbus.
509
Fall of the monarchy. First treaty with Carthage.
494
First secession.
493
Treaty of Spurius Cassius with the Latins.
491
Coriolanus marches on Rome.
From 486
Wars with the Aequi and Volsci from time to time over the next fifty years.
479
Battle of the Cremera; sacrifice of the Fabii.
474
Etruscans defeated off Cumae by Hiero I of Syracuse.
471
Concilium plebis and tribunes recognized.
451–450
Rule of the decemvirs. Twelve Tables published.
449
Secession. Valerio-Horatian laws. Rights of tribunes legally defined.
447
Quaestors elected by the People.
Comitia tributa probably established.
445
Military tribunes with consular powers replace the consulship.
443
Censors appointed for the first time.
431
Dictatorship of Cincinnatus.
Battle of Mons Algidus. Aequi decisively defeated.
396
Pay for soldiers introduced.
Fall of Veii.
390 (or 387)
Battle of the Allia.
Sack of Rome.
378
Construction of Rome’s Servian walls starts.
367
Licinio-Sextian Rogations passed.
Consulship restored. Curule aediles elected for the first time.
366
First plebeian consul elected. First praetors elected.
358
Treaty with the Latins renewed.
356
First plebeian dictator.
354
Alliance with the Samnites.
348
Treaty with Carthage renewed.
343–341
First Samnite War.
340–338
Latins revolt. Latin League dissolved.
337
First plebeian praetor elected.
326–304
Second Samnite War.
323
Alexander’s death.
321
Roman defeat at the Caudine Forks.
312
Censorship of Appius Claudius.
298–290
Third Samnite War.
295
Battle of Sentinum.
287
Lex Hortensia makes resolutions of the
concilium plebis
binding on all citizens.
282
Tarentum attacks Roman naval squadron.
281
Rome attacks Tarentum, which seeks help from Pyrrhus of Epirus.
280–275
War with Pyrrhus.
279
Battle of Asculum.
278
Roman treaty with Carthage.
Pyrrhus goes to Sicily.
276
Pyrrhus returns to Italy.
275
Pyrrhus defeated at Malventum, returns to Greece.
272
Surrender of Tarentum.
Livius Andronicus brought to Rome.
264
First Punic War starts. Mamertines of Messana appeal to Rome for assistance against Carthage. Rome sends an expeditionary force.
First gladiatorial show at Rome.