scutum (pl. scuta): an elongated oval Roman army shield, about 1.2 m (4 ft) tall and 0.75 m (2 ft 6 in) wide. It was made from two layers of wood, the pieces laid at right angles to each other; it was then covered with linen or canvas, and leather. The scutum was heavy, weighing between 6 and 10 kgs (13-22 lbs). A large metal boss decorated its centre, with the horizontal grip placed behind this. Decorative designs were often painted on the front, and a leather cover was used to protect the shield when not in use, e.g. while marching.
scythicon: the poison used by Scythians on their arrows, the purported recipe for which has survived in the historical record. Small snakes were killed and left to decompose, while vessels full of human blood were buried in dung until the contents putrefied. Then the liquid from the jars was mixed with the substances from the rotted snakes to make a poison that, according to Ovid, when applied to a hooked arrowhead ‘promises a double death’.
secutor (pl secutores): the pursuer, or hunter class of gladiator. Also called the contraretiarius, the secutor fought the fisherman, the retiarius. Virtually the only difference between the secutor and the murmillo was the smooth-surfaced helmet, which was without a brim and had a small, plain crest, probably to make it more difficult for the retiarius’ net to catch and hold. Unlike other types of gladiator, the secutor’s helmet had small eyeholes, making it very difficult to see. This was possibly to reduce the chances of the heavily armoured fighter quickly overcoming the retiarius.
sestertius (pl. sestertii): a brass coin, it was worth four asses; or a quarter of a denarius; or one hundredth of an aureus. Its name, ‘two units and a half third one’, comes from its original value, two and a half asses. By the time of the late Roman Republic, its use was becoming more common.
signifer: a standard-bearer and junior officer. This was a position of high esteem, with one for every century in a legion. Often the signifer wore scale armour and an animal pelt over his helmet, which sometimes had a hinged decorative face piece, while he carried a small, round shield rather than a scutum. His signum, or standard, consisted of a wooden pole bearing a raised hand, or a spear tip surrounded by palm leaves. Below this was a crossbar from which hung metal decorations, or a piece of coloured cloth. The standard’s shaft was decorated with discs, half-moons, ships’ prows and crowns, records of the unit’s achievements and which may have distinguished one century from another.
stola: a long, loose tunic, with or without sleeves, worn by married women. Those who were unmarried wore other types of tunic, but to simplify things, I have mentioned only one garment, worn by all.
a small, curved iron tool used to clean the skin after bathing. First perfumed oil was rubbed in, and then the strigil:strigil was used to scrape off the combination of sweat, dirt and oil.
tablinum: the office or reception area beyond the atrium. The tablinum usually opened on to an enclosed colonnaded garden.
tesserarius: one of the junior officers in a century, whose duties included commanding the guard. The name originates from the tessera tablet on which was written the password for the day.
testudo: the famous Roman square formation, formed by legionaries in the middle raising their scuta over their heads while those at the sides formed a shield wall. The testudo, or tortoise, was used to resist missile attack or to protect soldiers while they undermined the walls of towns under siege. The formation’s strength was reputedly tested during military training by driving a cart pulled by mules over the top of it.
Thracian: like most gladiators, this class had its origins with one of Rome’s enemies – Thrace (modern-day Bulgaria). Armed with a small square shield with a convex surface, this fighter wore greaves on both legs and, occasionally, fasciae – protectors on the thighs. The right arm was covered by a manica. A Hellenistic-type helmet was worn, with a broad curving brim and cheek guards.
tribune: senior staff officer within a legion; also one of ten political positions in Rome, where they served as ‘tribunes of the people’, defending the rights of the plebeians. The tribunes could also veto measures taken by the Senate or consuls, except in times of war. To assault a tribune was a crime of the highest order, making the Optimates’ threat to Antonius and Longinus in January 49 BC an act of real political skulduggery.
trierarch: the captain of a trireme. Originally a Greek rank, the term persisted in the Roman navy.
triplex acies: the standard deployment of a legion for battle. Three lines were formed some distance apart, with four cohorts in the front line and three in both the middle and rear lines. The gaps between the cohorts and between the lines themselves are unclear, but the legionaries would have been used to different variations, and to changing these quickly when ordered.
trireme: the classic Roman warship, which was powered by a single sail and three banks of oars. Each oar was rowed by one man, who was freeborn, not a slave. Exceptionally manoeuvrable, and capable of up to 8 knots under sail or for short bursts when rowed, the trireme also had a bronze ram at the prow. This was used to damage or even sink enemy ships. Small catapults were also mounted on the deck. Each trireme was crewed by up to 30 men and had around 200 rowers; it also carried up to 60 marines (in a reduced century), giving it a very large crew in proportion to its size. This limited the triremes’ range, so they were mainly used as troop transports and to protect coastlines. By the time of the late Republic, they were being replaced by even larger ships.
valetudinarium: the hospital in a legionary fort. These were usually rectangular buildings with a central courtyard. They contained up to 64 wards, each similar to the rooms in the legionary barracks which held a contubernium of soldiers.
Venus: the Roman goddess of motherhood and domesticity. At Pharsalus, Caesar used her name to inspire the thought of victory in his men, adding the ‘Victrix’, or ‘bringer of victory’ to her name.
vestiplicus: a specially trained slave whose job it was to take care of a wealthy man’s toga. Togas had to be kept properly creased when not in use; when worn, each fold had to be carefully arranged to lie properly. The toga was the ultimate symbol of Roman manhood, and was donned when assuming citizenship, taking a new wife from her father’s house, receiving clients and when discharging duties as a magistrate or the ruler of a province. It was worn in the Senate, during the celebration of a triumph, and of course in death.
vexillum (pl. vexilla): a distinctive, usually red, flag which was used to denote the commander’s position in camp or in battle. Vexilla were also used by detachments serving away from their units.
vilicus: slave foreman or farm manager. Commonly a slave, the vilicus was sometimes a paid worker, whose job it was to make sure that the returns on a farm were as large as possible. This was most commonly done by treating the slaves brutally.