33. Olearius 1967 (1656), 147.
34. Fletcher 1966 (1591), 46.
35. Hingley 1977, 194.
36. Dal’ 1984 (1862), vol. 1, 347.
37. Ibid., 167, 168, 169, 194.
38. Ibid., 108, 180, 182.
39. See, for example, the studies of inmates of the German concentration camps or slaves on southern American plantations by Bettelheim 1980, 3–83; Elkins 1963, 81–139; Stampp 1971. As Belkin (1991b, 23–24) points out, some of the children of parents who were arrested during the Stalin period live out their lives in fear.
40. Here I concur with Hellie’s (1987, 183–5) refutation of Keenan’s (1986) dismissal of the slavishness of persons surrounding the tsar in Muscovy.
41. For example, between the years 1959 and 1989 the proportion of ethnic Russians in the Russian Federation ranged from 81.5 to 83.3 percent (Arutiunian 1992, 21, table 3).
42. Examples provided by Cherniavsky 1961, 216–17.
43. Voloshin 1989, 11.
44. Likhachev 1988, 5.
45. Borisov 1976, 204. Cf. Borisov 1974 for the condensed Russian version of this article.
46. Berdyaev 1944, 164ff.; Berdiaev 1939, 137ff. Early in his career Berdiaev himself yielded to the temptation to personify Russia; see 229 herein.
47. Flugel 1950 (1921), 126.
48. For example: Flugel 1950 (1921), 125–28; Erikson 1969, 155, 157, 222; DeMause 1982, 175; Koenigsberg 1977; Anzieu 1984 (1975); Chasseguet-Smirgel 1985, 76–93; GAP 1987.
49. See, for example: Heller 1988, chap. 4; Cox 1989; Rzhevskii 1987.
NOTES TO CHAPTER 2
1. Lunt 1990.
2. Averintsev 1988, 332.
3. Toporov 1987, 234, 244.
4. Berdiaev 1971 (1946), 9.
5. As translated from the Primary Chronicle by Fedotov 1975, vol. 1, 106 (italics added).
6. As quoted by Fedotov 1975, vol. 1, 109.
7. Toporov 1987, 243.
8. Fedotov 1975, vol. 1, 105.
9. See Cherniavsky 1961, chap. 1.
10. Fedotov 1975, vol. 1, 104.
11. As quoted by Fedotov 1975, vol. 2, 57, 75, 77, 93, resp.
12. Fedotov 1975, vol. 1, 117–19.
13. Ibid., 119.
14. As quoted by Fedotov 1975, vol. 2, 210.
15. Bolshakoff 1977, 53.
16. Ibid., 124.
17. Meehan-Waters 1991, 41.
18. Fedotov 1975, vol. 1, 149–50.
19. Bolshakoff 1977, 47–48.
20. Ibid., 58, 101. For more detailed figures, see Smolitsch 1953, 538.
21. I am hardly the first to note the masochistic element in ascetic practices. Psychoanalyst Otto Fenichel, for example, considers that masochism is essential to “the psychology of asceticism” (1945, 364). Shirley Panken says that “the Christian ethic has sanctified masochism in such religious practices as mortification and its most extreme variant, asceticism” (Panken 1973, 12). Stuart L. Charme (1983, 224) points to numerous biblical examples where one’s suffering is interpreted as a sign of God’s love, e.g., “the Lord disciplines him whom He loves” (Hebrews 12:6). Sociologist Peter L. Berger, discussing the problem of theodicy, says that religious surrender of the self always has masochistic overtones. When Job declared “Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him,” he was engaging in a “pure form of religious masochism vis a vis the Biblical God.” The Calvinist vision of “the damned themselves joining in the glorification of that same God who has sentenced them to damnation” is also a “pure form of the masochistic attitude” (Berger 1967, 75).
The New Testament is of course full of exhortations to “turn the other cheek” and “take up the cross.” Gary Liaboe and James Guy (1985) argue that these ideas should not be taken too seriously, lest Christians fall into a masochistic “distortion of servanthood.” But they do not notice that very little of the Christian idea of “servanthood” is left when the masochism is subtracted from it. It is hard to miss the masochism in Saint Paul’s boastful descriptions of his own sufferings, yet Dale Martin’s recent treatise (1990) on the metaphor of slavery in Pauline Christianity (as in “slave of Christ”) makes no mention of clinical issues or the psychoanalysis of masochism. In general, scholarly treatments of the central Judeo-Christian texts are bound to be incomplete without a consideration of masochism.
22. Billington 1968, 65, 204.
23. Fedotov 1975, vol. 1, 341.
24. Pyle 1989.
25. Kireevskii 1984, 232.
26. Fletcher 1966 (1591), 90.
27. Kovalevskii 1895, 147.
28. Gor’kii 1937, 158.
29. Wortman 1967, 66.
30. There is a considerable (and contentious) literature on holy foolishness in Russia which includes: Kovalevskii 1895; Fedotov 1942; Fedotov 1975, vol. 2, 316–43; Thompson 1987; Likhachev 1987, vol. 2, 427–30; Likhachev and Panchenko 1976; Ziolkowski 1988, 131ff; Murav 1992.
31. Billington 1968, 60.
32. Saward 1980, 22. Cf. Kovalevskii 1895, 135–36.
33. Valuable sources on the Raskol and the Old Believers include: Zen’kovskii 1970; Cherniavsky 1966; Crummey 1970.
34. Avvakum 1979 (1673), 52.
35. Ibid., 61.
36. Cf. Likhachev in Likhachev and Panchenko 1976, 75–89.
37. Hunt 1985, 29.
38. Ibid., 30.
39. Kenneth Brostrom in his introduction to Avvakum 1979, 22. In his discussion of Avvakum’s “rock-ribbed passivity” (161) Brostrom comes close to recognizing that Avvakum was a masochist.
40. Sapozhnikov 1891, 123.
41. Ibid., end flap; cf. Crummey 1970, 39–57.
42. Crummey 1970, 51, 46. As Crummey points out, some Old Believers had the good sense to avoid suicidal confrontations with the authorities, and advocated avoidance of self-immolation.
43. Ziolkowski 1988, 197–217.
44. Some useful and heterogeneous sources from the enormous literature on Russian sectarianism include: Klibanov 1982 (1965); Leroy-Beaulieu 1902–5, vol. 3, 399–507; Billington 1968, 174–80; Munro 1980; Grass 1907–14; Mel’gunov 1919; Kutepov 1900; Steeves 1983. A chapter of Mel’gunov’s book (157–202) vigorously defends sectarians against such labels as “pathological” and “degenerate” attached to them by pre-psychoanalytic psychiatrists in Russia.
Yuri Glazov compares the all-male sadomasochistic collective of “thieves” (“vory”) in the Soviet gulag with the Khlysty. The “thieves” were hardened criminals who killed ordinary prisoners without compunction, and who took great pride in being able to inflict various mutilations upon themselves, such as swallowing broken glass or cutting off a finger or a hand (1985, 43–44).
45. Billington 1968, 179.
46. Averintsev 1988.
47. Toporov 1987, 246.
48. As quoted by Fedotov 1975, vol. 2, 210.
49. In Avvakum 1979, 189–91.
50. As quoted by Dunlop 1972, 137.
51. Szamuely 1974, 64; Toporov 1987, 219; Siniavskii 1991, 172–73.
52. Thanks to Yuri Druzhnikov for this proverb.
53. Dunlop 1972, 123.
54. Ibid., 41.
55. As translated by Gorodetzky 1973, 34. For the Russian original see Gogol’ 1937–52, vol. 8, 348. For a comprehensive study of Gogol’s “forgotten book,” see Sobel 1981.
56. As translated by Gorodetzky 1973, 34.
57. E.g., Fedotov 1942, 35; 1975, vol. 2, 210.
58. Gorodetzky 1973 (1938), ix. Cf. Ziolkowski 1988, 126ff.