debt crisis, 3, 181–182
debt laws, 216–217
grain prices and, 68–69, 78, 87, 153–154, 167–168
inequality, 20, 24
quaestors with provincial treasury, 47
Rome with cash, 43
slaves and, 20, 45
elders. See mos maiorum
elections
consulship, xiii, 156–157, 190–191, 203–205, 215
fraud, 90–91
reforms, 22, 42
rules, 127
tribunate, 3, 9, 22, 65–66, 70–71, 73
elephants, 94, 108
elite
with land ownership, 20, 27
against Lex Agraria, 30
employment. See unemployment, social reform and; wage labor
enemies of the state
Gaius Marius as, 197–202
Sulla as, 211–213
Sulpicius as, 197–198, 199
See also proscriptions
Equestrian class
Anti-Senate and, 192
cavalry and, 50
Extortion Court with jurors from, 48, 69–70, 78, 153, 158, 165–167, 254
Italians as, 262
Mamilian Commission and, xi, 105–106
optimates and, 152
with power rolled back, 120–121, 168
priesthood and, 158
proscriptions and, 250
publicani, 50–52, 56, 69–70, 84, 91, 132, 165–166, 168–169, 181–182, 216
wealth of, 261
Eryx, 201
Esquiline Gate, 196
Etruria, 68, 180, 209, 234
Eunus (Antiochus), 45–46, 131, 133
Euripides, on ambition, 115
expansion, of borders, 85–86
expulsions
of foreigners, 62
of Italians from Rome, 164, 229
of Marians, 211
Extortion Court (quaestio de repetundis)
with jurors from Equestrian Court, 48, 69–70, 78, 153, 158, 165–167, 254
publicani and, 69–70
revolts and, 48, 78, 153
farming
with citizen-farmers and Lex Agraria, 24–25
with tax-farming contracts, 69, 132, 163
tenant-farmers, 20–21
feriae (holiday), 193
Fides. See Temple of Fides
Fimbria, Gaius Flavius
death of, xiv, 220
mutiny of, xiii, 218
Samnites and, 208
First Servile War, ix, 44–46, 131–132
First Triumvirate, 264
Flaccus, Lucius Valerius (cos. 86)
death of, 218
debt cancellation and, 216
eastern command, 217–218
Flaccus, Lucius Valerius (cos. 100), consulship of, 152
Flaccus, Marcus Fulvius
attack on Scipio Nasica, 40
citizenship reform and, x, 61–62, 67, 71–72, 163
fall of, 75–77, 95
land commission and, 53, 55
as tribune, 70, 72–74
Flaccus, Quintus Fulvius, 76, 77
Florus, on Social War, 161
foederati, 53
food
security, 44
shortages, 68, 181, 210
foreigners
expulsion of, 62
provincials as noncitizens, 262
Fortuna (goddess), 191, 195, 242, 256, 257
Forum, 29, 76, 212
fraud
in elections, 90–91
treasury and, 258
freedmen, 43, 182
Fregellae, revolt, x, 62–63, 65, 105, 163
Further Spain, 6, 11, 47, 91
Gallia Narbonensis, 86, 119
Gauda (future King of Numidia), 110
Gaul
expansion into, 62, 85–86
with treasure, cursed, 121
See also Cimbri tribe; Cisalpine Gaul
geese, sacred, 50
Glaucia, Gaius Servilius
under arrest, 157
Cicero on, 145–146
as praetor, 152, 156–158
Saturninus, 146–147, 155–158
gold, 90
bounty for heads, 76, 77
conquered, 19, 121
Tolosa, xi, 121, 124, 134
torture with, 202
government, classical forms of, 8
governors, 47–48, 226, 253–254
Graccha, Sempronia, 18, 55, 146
Gracchus, Fake Son of Tiberius, 146, 147, 152, 155–156
Gracchus, Gaius
Cicero on, 60
colonies and, 68
early years, 17–18
Extortion Court reform and, 69–70
grain and, 68–69, 261
killing of, 73, 75–77, 95
as land commissioner, 32, 40, 53, 55
legacy, 167, 229, 261
with magistrates and abuse of power, 162–163
as martyr, 78–79, 146
rise of, x, 59–61
in Sardinia, 63–65
in Spain, 26
theatrical oratory and, 60, 64–65
with Tiberius Gracchus, 20, 59–61, 66–67
as tribune, 65–75
Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius (the Elder), 17, 19, 23, 33, 36
Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius (the Younger)
Appian on, 30, 36
legacy, 39–40, 42, 61, 67, 79, 146–148, 261
as martyr, 78–79, 146
murder of, 35–37, 41, 60, 66, 75, 95
Numantine Affair, 22–23
rise of, ix, 17–20
social reform and, 20, 25, 27–34
graffiti, 80
graft, 47
grain, 137
prices, 68–69, 78, 87, 153–154, 167–168
shortages, 56, 181
from Sicily, 44–45, 226
subsidies, 153–154
Gratidianus, Marcus Marius, 217, 249
Greece
Aemilianus and, 6–7
annexation of, 13–14
Cinna (cos. 87–84) and, 215
hostages from, 7
initial contact with, 5–6
navy, 189
Pontic invasion of, 208–209
Scordisci invasion of, 14
slaves from, 7
Sulla’s campaign in, 208–209, 213–214, 217–220
Hadrianus, 226
Hannibal, 5, 63, 88
heads
gold bounty for, 76, 77
on posts, 212, 213, 242, 251
proscriptions and, 248, 250
Heliopolis, 48, 49
Hellespont, 218, 220
Herennius, Gaius, 91
Hiempsal (King of Numidia), x, 89, 97, 124
Hirpini, 181, 234
holiday (feriae), 193
Homer, 15, 41
horsemanship, Numidians and, 88, 107
hostages, from Greece, 7
Iberia, 21, 263
indictment, of Sulla, 205–206
Isère River, x, 86
Italians
citizenship reform and, x, 61–63, 67, 71–72, 161–165, 178–179, 229
as Equestrians, 262
expulsion from Rome, 164, 229
massacre of, x, xiii, 93–94, 202
migration, 162
in military, 131
as noncitizens, 25, 43, 71, 162–165, 168, 229
Roman citizenship for, 178–179, 225–226, 229, 255
social reform and, 28, 154
Italy, xii
land distribution and, 161–162
roads, 68, 86
Social War and, 171–173, 181–182
judicial assemblies, secret ballots, ix, 22
Jugurtha (King of Numidia)
adopted by Micipsa, 89
attacks Adherbal, x, 89, 92
Bocchus and, xi, 112, 118–119
bribes senators, 90
campaigns of, xi, 89, 103–105, 107–108, 110–112, 117–119
death of, 128
fall of, xi, 122–124
massacre of Italians, x, 93
murders Adherbal, x, 93
murders Hiempsal, x, 89
Opimius and, x, 88–89
in Rome, xi, 96–97
Scaurus and, xi, 93–94
Scipio Aemilianus on, 88–89
at siege of Numantia, 88
Jupiter. See Temple of Jupiter
Justin, 121
killings, political
assassinations, 169, 177, 186
of citizens seeking regal power, 9
murders, xii, 35–37, 41, 60, 66, 75, 93, 95, 97, 152, 156, 158, 171, 182, 205, 211–213, 223, 237–238, 264
in Numidia, 93–94, 97
proscriptions, xiv, 247–250, 259, 263, 264
sanctioned, 75–80, 95, 157–158
as triggers for upheaval, 74–75
See also heads
Laenas, Publius Popilius, 39, 67
land
ager publicus, 24, 27, 29, 54, 68–69
conscription and, 22, 113–114
disputed, 53–54
elite with ownership of, 20, 27
Latin Rights with, 53
redistribution, 134, 154, 161–162, 168–170
rent-free, 73
Roman citizenship in exchange for, 163
slaves to work, 20–21
social reform and, ix, 20–21, 24–25, 27–34, 40, 54–57, 67–68, 154
for veterans, 138, 139
See also Lex Agraria