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more than two thousand square miles: CalFire, “Incident Information: 2018,” January 24, 2018, http://cdfdata.fire.ca.gov/incidents/incidents_stats?year=2018.

smoke blanketed almost half the country: Megan Molteni, “Wildfire Smoke Is Smothering the US—Even Where You Don’t Expect It,” Wired, August 14, 2018.

in British Columbia: Estefania Duran, “B.C. Year in Review 2017: Wildfires Devastate the Province like Never Before,” Global News, December 25, 2017, https://globalnews.ca/news/3921710/b-c-year-in-review-2017-wildfires.

L.A. has always been: Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (London: Verso, 1990).

burned the state’s wine crop: Tiffany Hsu, “In California Wine Country, Wildfires Take a Toll on Vintages and Tourism,” The New York Times, October 10, 2017.

Getty Museum: Jessica Gelt, “Getty Museum Closes Because of Fire, but ‘The Safest Place for the Art Is Right Here,’ Spokesman Says,” Los Angeles Times, December 6, 2017.

wildfire season in the western United States: “Climate Change Indicators: U.S. Wildfires,” WX Shift, http://wxshift.com/climate-change/climate-indicators/us-wildfires.

nearly 20 percent: W. Matt Jolly et al., “Climate-Induced Variations in Global Wildfire Danger from 1979 to 2013,” Nature Communications 6, no. 7537 (July 2015), https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms8537.

By 2050, destruction: Joseph Romm, Climate Change: What Everyone Needs to Know (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 47.

ten million acres were burned: National Interagency Fire Center, “Total Wildland Fires and Acres (1926-2017),” www.nifc.gov/fireInfo/fireInfo_stats_totalFires.html.

“We don’t even call it”: Melissa Pamer and Elizabeth Espinosa, “ ‘We Don’t Even Call It Fire Season Anymore…It’s Year Round’: Cal Fire,” KTLA 5, December 11, 2017, https://ktla.com/2017/12/11/we-dont-even-call-it-fire-season-anymore-its-year-round-cal-fire.

soot and ash they give off: William Finnegan, “California Burning,” New York Review of Books, August 16, 2018.

dozens of guests tried to escape: Jason Horowitz, “As Greek Wildfire Closed In, a Desperate Dash Ended in Death,” The New York Times, July 24, 2018.

Great Flood of 1862: Daniel L. Swain et al., “Increasing Precipitation Volatility in Twenty-First-Century California,” Nature Climate Change 8 (April 2018): pp. 427–33, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0140-y.

globally, between 260,000 and 600,000: Fay H. Johnston et al., “Estimated Global Mortality Attributable to Smoke from Landscape Fires,” Environmental Health Perspectives 120, no. 5 (May 2012), https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104422.

Canadian fires have: George E. Le et al., “Canadian Forest Fires and the Effects of Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Hospitalizations Among the Elderly,” ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information 3 (May 2014): pp. 713–31, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi3020713.

42 percent spike in hospital visits: C. Howard et al., “SOS: Summer of Smoke—A Mixed-Methods, Community-Based Study Investigating the Health Effects of a Prolonged, Severe Wildfire Season on a Subarctic Population,” Canadian Journal of Emergency Medicine 19 (May 2017): p. S99, https://doi.org/10.1017/cem.2017.264.

“One of the strongest emotions”: Sharon J. Riley, “ ‘The Lost Summer’: The Emotional and Spiritual Toll of the Smoke Apocalypse,” The Narwhal, August 21, 2018, https://thenarwhal.ca/the-lost-summer-the-emotional-and-spiritual-toll-of-the-smoke-apocalypse.

Peatland fires in Indonesia: Susan E. Page et al., “The Amount of Carbon Released from Peat and Forest Fires in Indonesia During 1997,” Nature 420 (November 2002): pp. 61–65, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01131. For a picture of how peatland emissions will change going forward, see Angela V. Gallego-Sala et al., “Latitudinal Limits to the Predicted Increase of the Peatland Carbon Sink with Warming,” Nature Climate Change 8 (2018): pp. 907–13.

In California, a single wildfire: David R. Baker, “Huge Wildfires Can Wipe Out California’s Greenhouse Gas Gains,” San Francisco Chronicle, November 22, 2017.

its second “hundred-year drought”: Joe Romm, “Science: Second ‘100-Year’ Amazon Drought in Five Years Caused Huge CO2 Emissions. If This Pattern Continues, the Forest Would Become a Warming Source,” ThinkProgress, February 8, 2011, https://thinkprogress.org/science-second-100-year-amazon-drought-in-5-years-caused-huge-co2-emissions-if-this-pattern-7036a9074098.

the trees of the Amazon: Roel J. W. Brienen et al., “Long-Term Decline of the Amazon Carbon Sink,” Nature, March 2015.

A group of Brazilian scientists: Aline C. Soterroni et al., “Fate of the Amazon Is on the Ballot in Brazil’s Presidential Election,” Monga Bay, October 17, 2018, https://news.mongabay.com/2018/10/fate-of-the-amazon-is-on-the-ballot-in-brazils-presidential-election-commentary/.

deforestation accounts for about 12 percent: G. R. van der Werf et al., “CO2 Emissions from Forest Loss,” Nature Geoscience 2 (November 2009): pp. 737–38, https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo671.

as much as 25 percent: Bob Berwyn, “How Wildfires Can Affect Climate Change (and Vice Versa),” Inside Climate News, August 23, 2018, https://insideclimatenews.org/news/23082018/extreme-wildfires-climate-change-global-warming-air-pollution-fire-management-black-carbon-co2.

ability of forest soils to absorb : Daisy Dunne, “Methane Uptake from Forest Soils Has ‘Fallen by 77% in Three Decades,’ ” Carbon Brief, August 6, 2018, www.carbonbrief.org/methane-uptake-from-forest-soils-has-fallen-77-per-cent-three-decades.

an additional 1.5 degrees Celsius: Natalie M. Mahowald et al., “Are the Impacts of Land Use on Warming Underestimated in Climate Policy?” Environmental Research Letters 12, no. 9 (September 2017), https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa836d.

30 percent of emissions: Quentin Lejeune et al., “Historical Deforestation Locally Increased the Intensity of Hot Days in Northern Mid-Latitudes,” Nature Climate Change 8 (April 2018): pp. 386–90, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0131-z.

twenty-seven additional cases: Leonardo Suveges Moreira Chaves et al., “Abundance of Impacted Forest Patches Less than 5 km2 Is a Key Driver of the Incidence of Malaria in Amazonian Brazil,” Scientific Reports 8, no. 7077 (May 2018), https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-25344-5.

Disasters No Longer Natural

tornadoes will strike much more frequently: Francesco Fiondella, “Extreme Tornado Outbreaks Have Become More Common,” International Research Institute for Climate and Society, Columbia University, March 2, 2016, https://iri.columbia.edu/news/tornado-outbreaks.

their trails of destruction could grow: Joseph Romm, Climate Change: What Everyone Needs to Know (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 69.

three major hurricanes: Congressional Research Service, The National Hurricane Center and Forecasting Hurricanes: 2017 Overview and 2018 Outlook (Washington, D.C., August 23, 2018), https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R45264.pdf.