161 November 1957 NIE: Memo, McQuade to Nitze, loc. cit.
161 NIE on Soviet first move: Ibid., p. 9.
161 100 ICBMs by 1959: Ibid., pp. 7–8.
163 Symington-Lanphier-Dulles meetings: Howard Stoertz, Jr., Memo for Record, “Discussion of Soviet and U.S. Long Range Ballistic Missile Programs,” Aug. 18, 1958, White House Office file, Office of Staff Secretary, Subject Series, Alpha Subseries, Box 24, Symington Letter folder, DDEL;* letter, Stuart Symington to Eisenhower, Aug. 29, 1958, loc. cit.
165 February 9, 1960 NIE: Memo, McQuade to Nitze, loc. cit.; memo, G. W. Rathjens, “Proposed Ban on Missile Testing,” p. 4, White House Office file, Office of Assistant for Science and Technology, Box 1, Disarmament, Missiles [5/58–3/60], DDEL.
165–66 Army-Navy estimates: Memo, McQuade to Nitze, loc. cit., pp. 11–12; and interviews.
166 Air Force reduces vulnerability: Memo to Assistant C/S, Installations, “Protective Construction,” Nov. 13, 1956, Nathan Twining Papers, Box 104, Air Force Council C/S Decisions, Vol. Ill, Tab 39/48a, LoC;* and the following from Thomas White Papers:* letter, Thomas Power to White, Oct. 21, 1957, Box 41, 1957 Top Secret General folder; memo, Curtis LeMay to White, “SAC Airborne Alert Plan,” Dec. 23, 1958, Box 14, Air Force Council folder; memo on 1959 Annual Commanders Conference, Jan. 17, 1959, Box 29, 1959 Top Secret General folder; Decision Memo, “SAC Airborne Alert Plan,” Mar. 31, 1959, Box 25, Air Force Council Decisions 1959, Tab 6; memo, Curtis LeMay to White, “Vulnerability of SAC Bombers in Early 1960,” Feb. 18, 1959, Box 25, Air Force Council folder; memo, Thomas Power to JCS, “Establishment of an Airborne Alert,” June 23, 1960, Box 34, SAC folder.
167 Air Force against hardening: Memo, Gen. Thomas White to C/S, “Protective Construction Criteria,” Oct. 31, 1956, Nathan Twining Papers,* Box 82, 1956 Air Force Council folder; memo, Curtis LeMay to C/S, “Vulnerability of SAC Bombers in Early 1960,” loc. cit.;* and interviews.
168 Air Force on deception: After meetings held Feb. 24–27, 1959, the Air Force Council noted, “Soviet security measures will permit the development of forces under concealment, capable of neutralizing the effect of our programmed deterrent force.” Memo for C/S, “The Threat,” May 9, 1959, Thomas White Papers, Box 29, 1959 Top Secret General folder;* and interviews.
169 Symington and Eisenhower; Andrew Goodpaster, Memo of Conference with President, Aug. 29, 1958, and Letter, Symington to Eisenhower, Aug. 29, 1958, White House Office File, Office of Staff Secretary, Subject Series, Alpha Subseries, Box 24, Symington Letter folder DDEL.*
169 “deterrence gap.” E.g., Herman Kahn, On Thermonuclear War (Princeton Univ. Press, 1960), pp. 201, 474.
171 “with matching”: Wohlstetter, “The Delicate Balance of Terror,” Foreign Affairs, Jan. 1959, pp. 212–13.
171 “notion that a”: Ibid., p. 234.
171 “are hard”: Ibid., p. 234.
11: THE MASSIVE-RETALIATION SPEECH
174 Dulles speech: Dulles, “The Evolution of Foreign Policy,” The Department of State Bulletin, Jan. 25, 1954, pp. 107–10.
176 “the economy”: Quoted in Bernard Brodie, Strategy in the Missile Age (Princeton Univ. Press, 1959), p. 366.
176 “the foundation”: Quoted in Glenn H. Snyder, “The ‘New Look’ of 1953,” in Warner R. Schilling, Paul Y. Hammond, Glenn H. Snyder, Strategy, Politics, and Defense Budgets (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1962), pp. 389–90.
176 Eisenhower to Gruenther: Letter, May 4, 1953, Ann Whitman File, DDE Diary Series, Box 3, DDE Diary, 12/52–7/53 (3) folder, DDEL.
176 Dodge report: Atts. to letter, George Humphrey to Joseph Dodge, Feb. 16, 1953, Office of Special Assistant for National Security Affairs file, NSC Series, Subject Subseries, Box 8, President’s Meeting with Civilian Consultants, 3/1/53 (1) folder, DDEL.
177 “the United States”: Letter, Eisenhower to Gruenther, loc. cit.
177 Korean War deaths: Precise figures are 33,629 killed and 103,284 wounded. Bernard Brodie, War and Politics (New York: Macmillan, 1973), p. 106.
178 Eisenhower and Conner: Oral History Interview with Gen. Andrew Goodpaster, Columbia Univ. Oral History Project; and interviews.
178 “the great equation”: Snyder, op. cit., p. 392.
178 “Why, the American”: Quoted by Marshall at Meeting of Secretary of Defense and Service Chiefs with Secretary of State, Oct. 10, 1948, Records of JCS, CCS 312.1 (18 Nov. 47), NA/MMB.
178 “a striking power”: Cited in letter, Dulles to James Reston, Dec. 13, 1954, John Foster Dulles Papers, Box 84, Massive Retaliation folder, Princeton Univ.
178–79 May 5 Paris speech: Dulles, “Defense Through Deterrent Power,” Vital Speeches, June 1, 1952, pp. 493–95. Dulles made the same point later that month in Pittsburgh and New York. See Dulles, “A Positive Foreign Policy” (Pittsburgh), May 15, 1952, John Foster Dulles Papers, Box 62, Massive Retaliation folder, Princeton Univ.; references to both speeches appear in letter, Richard Nixon to Dulles, May 22, 1952, Dulles Papers, Box 62, Nixon folder.
179 “we, a professedly”: Press release, Federal Council, for Aug. 10, 1945, John Foster Dulles Papers, Box 26, Atomic Weapons folder, Princeton Univ.
179 “the dictates of”: Dulles, “The Atomic Bomb and Moral Law,” John Foster Dulles Papers, Box 29, Atomic Weapons folder, Princeton Univ.
180 Eisenhower and Dulles’ phrase: Snyder, op. cit., p. 390.
180 Helena trip: Robert J. Donovan, Eisenhower: The Inside Story (Harper & Bros., 1956), pp. 17–18; “Eisenhower Visits Korea Front; Says He Has ‘No Trick Solutions’; Cruiser Bringing Him from Guam,” New York Times, Dec. 6, 1952.
181 “would become one”: Andrew Goodpaster, Memo of Conference with President, May 14, 1956, Ann Whitman File, DDE Diary Series, Box 15, May 1956 Goodpaster folder, DDEL.
181 “fatuous”: Andrew Goodpaster, Memo of Conference with President, May 24, 1956, loc. cit.
181 Dulles’ aggressive view: See Townsend Hoopes, The Devil and John Foster Dulles (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973); Leonard Mosley, Dulles (New York: Dial Press/James Wade, 1978).
181 “remind individuals”: Letter, Eisenhower to Dulles, March 7, 1955, John Foster Dulles Papers, Box 91, D. D. Eisenhower folder, Princeton Univ.
181 “Progression from the spear”: USAF, Doctrine of Atomic Air Warfare, Dec. 30, 1948 (declassified).
182 “It is in”: Memo, Chief of Naval Operations to JCS, “U.S. Military Position on the Employment of Atomic Weapons,” July 24, 1951, Records of JCS, CCS 385 (2-22-51), Sec. 2, NA/MMB.
182 “it would be”: Att. to letter, Maj. George Blanchard to Joseph Short, Sept. 12, 1952, Official File, 692-A Atomic Bomb folder, HSTL.
182 Army study and Navy agreement: Memo, Dir., Strategic Plans et al., on JCS 1953/11, June 25, 1952, Arleigh Burke Papers, A-1 folder, Navy Yard, Washington, D.C.