183 “It is United States”: Att. to Memo for Secretary of Defense by Omar Bradley, “JCS Views on DoD Interest in the Use of Atomic Weapons,” Dec. 11, 1951, Records of JCS, CCS 471.6 (11-3-51), Sec. 1, NA/MMB.
183 “strategic air offensive”: JCS-2056/7, Aug. 12, 1950, Records of JCS, CCS 373.11 (12-14-45), Sec. 2; “Joint Outline Emergency War Plan ‘Ironbark,’” July 3, 1951, p. 16, Records of JCS, CCS 381 (3-2-46), B. P., Pt. 5; both in NA/MMB.
183 “What does all”: Radford, Address, “Modern Evolution of Armed Forces,” May 25, 1954, Records of JCS, 045.8 Naval War College, NA/MMB.
12: THE LIMITED-WAR CRITIQUE
185 Dulles and Nitze: Leonard Mosley, Dulles (New York: Dial Press/James Wade, 1978), pp. 307–08; and interviews.
185 Nitze memo: Memo, Nitze to Robert Bowie, “Analysis of Dulles Speech,” Jan. 13, 1954 (provided to author).
187 class of 1939: History of the Class of 1939 (yearbook), especially p. 239, Yale Univ.; and interviews.
187 “If we are”: Bundy, “Class Oration,” ibid., pp. 191–92.
188 Kaufmann transferred: This was due largely to his Yale connections. See letters Bemis to Seymour, Dec. 12, 1941: Seymour to Kaufmann, Dec. 15, 1941; Kaufmann to Seymour, Jan. 3, 1942: all in Charles Seymour Papers, Box 90, Ka 1937–50 folder, Yale Univ.
190 “As a consequence”: Kaufmann, “Introduction,” in Kaufmann, ed., Military Policy and National Security (Princeton Univ. Press, 1956), p. 7.
190 “that, despite our”: Kaufmann, “The Requirements of Deterrence,” Memorandum #7, Princeton Center of International Studies, 1954 (reprinted in ibid., quote on p. 18; in all references to this essay, page numbers will refer to the book, not to the originally printed essay).
190 “In other words”: Ibid., p. 21.
191 “national objectives”: Bernard Brodie, “Changing Capabilities and War Objectives,” p. 22, lecture, Air War College, Apr. 17, 1952, Bernard Brodie Papers, Box 12, UCLA.
191 Brodie’s basic thoughts: Brodie, “Nuclear Weapons: Strategic or Tactical?,” Foreign Affairs, Jan. 1954, p. 227.
191 Brodie and battlefield nuclear: Ibid., pp. 224–27; on Vandenberg and RAND work, see Chaps. 3 and 5.
191 “it is quite”: Kaufmann, “The Requirements of Deterrence,” p. 21.
191 “must seem worth”: Ibid., p. 20.
192 “we must immediately”: Ibid., p. 23.
192 “suggested rather”: Ibid., p. 21.
192 “credit”: Ibid., p. 22.
192 “on the cheap”: Ibid., p. 38.
192 “to fit”: Ibid., p. 29.
193 “Our effort”: Ibid.
193 “outbreak of”: Ibid., p. 37.
193 Brodie’s same points: Brodie, “Unlimited Weapons and Limited War,” The Reporter, Nov. 18, 1954.
194 “intrude upon”: Letters, Kaufmann to Brodie, Sept. 12, 1955; Brodie to Kaufmann, Sept. 19, 1955, Bernard Brodie Papers, Box 1, K folder, UCLA.
194 footnotes: See essays in Kaufmann, ed., Military Policy and National Security; and interviews.
195 Harvard and MIT letter: New York Times, Apr. 30, 1950, p. 8E.
195 Kaufmann essay and Army: Anthony Leviero, “Pentagon Armed by Savant’s Data,” New York Times, Mar. 20, 1955; and interviews.
195 “Kaufmann’s contentions”: Memo, Col. L. F. Paul to Gen. White, “Princeton Report on Massive Retaliation,” n.d., Thomas White Papers, Box 1, Correspondence (1954–57) folder, LoC.*
195 “increasingly impossible”: See Army statements compiled in Confidential USAF analysis, Nathan Twining Papers, Box 117, Army-Navy-Air Force “Interservice Rivalry” 1955–56 folder, LoC.*
196 “radical departure”: Memo, Radford to Gens. Twining, Taylor, Pate and Adm. Burke, “Strategic Concept and the Use of U.S. Military Forces,” Mar. 28, 1956, Records of JCS, Chairmen’s File, 301 Military Strategy (Posture), NA/MMB.
196 Ridgway resigns: See his letter to Secretary of Defense Charles Wilson, leaked to New York Times, July 15, 1955.
196 Eisenhower versus Taylor: E.g., Andrew Goodpaster, Memo for Record, Feb. 10, 1956, White House Office file, Office of Staff Secretary, Subject Series, DoD Subseries, Box 4, JCS (2) folder; Memo of Conference, May 24, 1956, Ann Whitman File, DDE Diary Series, Box 15, May ’56 Good-paster folder; both in DDEL; and Maxwell D. Taylor, The Uncertain Trumpet (New York: Harper & Bros., 1960), p. 123; and interviews.
196 Army case takes hold: E.g., memo, Robert Cutler to Eisenhower, “Limited War in the Nuclear Age,” Aug. 7, 1957, Office of Special Assistant for National Security Affairs file, OCB Series, Subject Subseries, Box 3, Limited War folder; letter, George Kistiakowsky to Thomas Gates, Sept. 30, 1959, and memo, George Rathjens to Kistiakowsky, Oct. 5, 1960, both in White House Office file, Office of Special Assistant for Science and Technology, Box 2, Limited War (Sept.-Oct. 1960) folder; all in DDEL.
197 “continuing competition”: Kaufmann, “Force and Foreign Policy,” Kaufmann, ed., Military Policy and National Security, p. 252.
197 “Whatever”: Ibid., p. 248.
197 “perform a function”: Kaufmann, “Limited Warfare,” in ibid., p. 118.
197 “it must be”: Ibid., p. 117.
198 “the scope”: Ibid., p. 113.
198 “managed”: Ibid., p. 128. 198 “messages”: Ibid., p. 113.
198 “great value”: Kaufmann, “Force and Foreign Policy,” p. 234.
198 “as in poker”: Ibid., p. 256.
198 “new and strange”: Kaufmann, “Limited Warfare,” pp. 119–20.
198 “Limited war cannot”: Ibid., p. 127.
199 “the lines”: Kaufmann, “Force and Foreign Policy,” p. 245.
199 “that the costs”: Kaufmann, “Limited Warfare,” p. 113.
199 “All the emotions”: Ibid, p. 129.
199 “returned to its”: Kaufmann, “Force and Foreign Policy,” p. 260.
200 “We may not”: Ibid., pp. 255–56.
200 “rather unhappy”: Letter, Kaufmann to Brodie, Oct. 31, 1955, Bernard Brodie Papers, Box 1, K folder, UCLA.
13: COUNTERFORCE
201 February 1956: Reference in letter, Kaufmann to Brodie, Oct. 31, 1955, Bernard Brodie Papers, Box 1, K folder, UCLA; and interview.
201 war games: For a description of RAND war-game techniques, see M. G. Weiner, War Gaming Methodology, RAND RM-2413, July 10, 1959; facts presented here come from interviews.
203 “all-out war”: Kaufmann, “Force and Foreign Policy,” in Kaufmann, ed., Military Policy and National Security (Princeton Univ. Press, 1956), p. 243, fn. 8.
204 Brodie on Air Staff: See chap. 3.
206 RAND targeting studies: More than a dozen studies are listed in an unclassified RAND bibliography of Targeting papers.
207 Brodie-Hitch-Marshall paper: “The Next Ten Years,” RAND D-2700, Dec. 12, 1954, as footnoted in James F. Digby, Problems in Attacking Soviet Strategic Air Power, D-2711, Feb. 4, 1955 (provided to author), p. 4. Digby states that this paper discussed countermilitary strategies, and he also refers to “earlier papers by Brodie,” which “are of interest in this regard”; and interviews.