The first recorded performance of a play written by an American was in 1690 at Harvard College. The first permanent American theatre was built in Philadelphia in 1766; it was made of brick and imitated English buildings in arrangement and general architecture. In 1752 Lewis Hallam, a member of a distinguished theatrical family, arrived with a troupe from England, thus marking the beginning of professional theatre in America. The theatre in America for the next 40 years was similar to British provincial theatre, with simple sets for easy traveling; few cities could yet afford theatre buildings. By the 1790s, however, troupes were based in Boston, New York City, Philadelphia, and Charleston, S.C., and many permanent theatres were being erected.
The first decades of the 19th century brought not only multiplication of playhouses in the larger Eastern cities but also the extension of theatre to interior regions. The frontier spirit was embodied by Samuel Drake, who took the first company west (to Kentucky) in 1815. Drake designed an adjustable proscenium that could be set up in any large room. The front curtain was a roll drop (lowered from behind the proscenium arch), and three sets of wings (one each for exteriors, ornate interiors, and simple interiors) and six roll drops (including a garden, a street, and a wood) completed his scenic repertoire.
After 1825, New York City had higher standards of theatrical production and more theatre buildings than any other city in America. Although decoration and furnishings created an impression of luxury, the early urban theatres were in fact filthy and rat-infested. They had little or no fire protection, and between 1820 and 1845, no fewer than 25 theatre buildings burned down. Although most productions used stock sets and props, occasionally an elaborate or specific set was added. Interest in historical accuracy was not a major production concern until 1830, when Charles Kean visited with his Shakespeare troupe from England.
During the latter third of the 19th century, the general scenic trend was toward greater naturalism, with particular emphasis on local colour. The major design innovations came from the managers of troupes permanently based at a theatre. One such manager was Edwin Booth, whose new theatre, opened in 1869, introduced several new concepts in the United States. The most important innovation was that the stage floor was flat and had no grooves; elevators raised set pieces from the 50 feet of working space below the stage, and flying machines moved other pieces into the 76 feet of overhead space. In Booth’s new theatre he abandoned the apron and used box sets almost exclusively.
Another important manager was Augustin Daly, who furthered the trend of realism. While the members of his troupe changed considerably during its three-decade history, it was the best example of the permanent stock company in the history of the American theatre. Daly stressed the unity of every production and controlled each element himself. His first success, Saratoga, by Bronson Howard, in 1870, was the first play to give a realistic picture of American life of the day.
Steele MacKaye, also active during this period, holds a unique place in theatre as an actor, manager, playwright, inventor, and designer. In an age of mechanical inventions, producers were seeking a means of effecting scene changes that would not require an intermission. In 1879, MacKaye filed a patent for a “double stage,” a feature he subsequently introduced in the Madison Square Theatre in New York City. He built an elevator platform on which one scene might be set while an earlier scene was being played below. The new scene was then merely lowered, with its own stage floor, to the appropriate level, while the previous scene rolled back behind it.
Among MacKaye’s other mechanical innovations were a folding theatre chair with coatrack attached, a sliding stage, a theatre ventilation system, the first installation of an electric lighting system in a theatre (1885), devices to produce cloud, ocean wave, and rainbow effects, the substitution of overhead lighting for footlights (which had been in use since the early Baroque period), and a process for fireproofing scenery. For financial reasons, some of his more grandiose schemes were never executed. For the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, for example, he designed a “Spectatorium” for musico-spectacle-dramas; it called for a sky dome that encircled the stage, a curtain made of light, a sliding stage for scene changes, and an auditorium seating 10,000 people.
In 1896 six men formed the Theatrical Syndicate, which acquired almost complete control over American theatre. They were interested only in commercially profitable works, such as productions featuring performers with large followings. The major opposition to the syndicate came from David Belasco, a producer and playwright. Belasco’s aim as a producer was to bring complete realism to the stage, and it is difficult today to appreciate how spectacularly far he carried this pursuit. In 1879, in his production of The Passion Play, the story of Jesus Christ from birth to Resurrection, he arranged for a live flock of sheep to be herded onstage. When the actor James O’Neill (father of playwright Eugene O’Neill), who played Christ, was dragged before Pontius Pilate and crowned with thorns, members of the audience fainted. And after the performance, when O’Neill walked around the city, people sank to their knees and prayed to him. The play aroused such religious frenzy that Jews were assaulted on the street outside the theatre, and a court injunction forbade further performances.
David Belasco's realistic setting for the New York production of Tiger Rose, 1917.Courtesy of the Theatre Collection, New York Public Library at Lincoln Center, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations
The power of the Theatrical Syndicate was so great that in 1904 Belasco was forced to rent Convention Hall, a leaky building in New York City, for his productions. During the first performance there was a violent rainstorm, and the audience had to sit through the last act holding umbrellas. Belasco’s productions became so popular that the syndicate was finally forced to compromise with him, thus breaking their stranglehold on the American theatre. Howard Bay George C. Izenour Clive Barker The evolution of modern theatrical production
Underlying the theatrical developments of the 19th century, and in many cases inspiring them, were the social upheavals that followed the French Revolution. Throughout Europe the middle class took over the theatres and effected changes in repertoire, style, and decorum. In those countries that experienced revolutionary change or failure, national theatres were founded to give expression to the views and values of the middle class, whose aspirations in these cases coincided with a more general movement of national liberation. In western Europe a different pattern of development emerged, varying considerably in each country but having the unified features of a demand for “realism” on the stage, which meant a faithful reflection of the life-style and domestic surroundings of the rising class in both its tragic and its comic aspects; an adjunct to this development was the demand for increased decorum and cleanliness in the auditorium.
In England, where the Industrial Revolution was more advanced than in the other European countries, the middle class had to struggle for its own theatres against the entrenched power of the two patent houses (licensed by the Crown), Drury Lane and Covent Garden, which had enjoyed an almost total monopoly of dramatic theatre since 1660. As early as 1789, attempts were made to evade the legal restrictions on building new theatres. The Reform Bill of 1832, which enfranchised the propertied middle class and established its political power, led to the Theatres Act of 1843, which gave London a “free theatre.” The expected flood of new theatre buildings did not occur, and no major building took place for 16 years. This is probably because there were already sufficient illegal theatres in operation when the act was passed. The boulevard theatres of Paris experienced less trouble in establishing themselves. The rise of the middle-class theatres caused the decline of both the patent houses in London and the Comédie-Française—the national theatre of France. After much political struggle, centring particularly around censorship, the Comédie-Française, unable to compete with the boulevard theatres, capitulated and presented the plays of the new school for the new audiences.