A more complex form of realistic thinking underlies the ability to identify or use a class of items, as in selecting several different kinds of triangle from an array of other geometric figures. In the course of solving the problem, the individual will link together a newly experienced group of objects according to one or more of their common properties. This new grouping is then given a general name (as in first learning the meaning of the word triangle). It might also be determined that a new object fits an existing category. Physical objects are multidimensional; that is, they may vary in shape, size, colour, location (in relation to other objects), emotional significance, or connotative meaning. How a person identifies such dimensions, develops hypotheses (or tentative conclusions) about which of the specific dimensions define a class, arrives at the rules of class membership, and tests various hypotheses all reflect his ability to grasp concepts. Successful performance in all these processes leads to the formulation of pertinent rules based on one’s ability to classify specific items. (See concept formation.) Creative thinking
As discussed above, divergent (or creative) thinking is an activity that leads to new information, or previously undiscovered solutions. Some problems demand flexibility, originality, fluency, and inventiveness, especially those for which the individual must supply a unique solution. (See creativity.)
A number of processes or phases have been identified as typical of creative thinking. According to one well-known theory, in the first phase, preparation, the thinker assembles and explores resources, perhaps making preliminary decisions about their value in solving the problem at hand. Incubation represents the next phase, in which the individual mulls over possibilities and shifts from one to another relatively freely and without any rigid rational or logical preconceptions and constraints. Illumination occurs when resources fall into place and a definite decision is reached about the result or solution. Next is verification (refinement or polishing), the process of making relatively minor modifications in committing ideas to final form. Often enough, objective standards for judging creative activity (e.g., musical composition) are lacking, especially if the emotional satisfaction of the creator is an important criterion. Although the four phases have been ordered in a logical sequence, they often vary widely and proceed in different orders from one person to the next. Many creative people attain their goals by following special strategies that are not neatly describable.
The phases of preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification are characteristic of creative thinkers generally but do not guarantee that a worthwhile product will ensue. Results also depend on whether an individual has the necessary personality characteristics and abilities; in addition, the quality of creative thinking stems from the training of the creator. The artist who produces oil paintings needs to learn the brushing techniques basic to the task; the scientist who creates a new theory does so against a background of previous learning. Furthermore, creativity intimately blends objective and subjective processes; the successful creator learns how to release and to express his feelings and insights.
Creative thinking is a matter of using intrinsic resources to produce tangible results. This process is markedly influenced by early experience and training. Thus, school and work situations that encourage individual expression and that tolerate idiosyncratic or unorthodox thinking seem to foster the development of creativity. W. Edgar Vinacke
Citation Information
Article Title: Thought
Website Name: Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Date Published: 14 May 2008
URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/thought
Access Date: August 28, 2019
Additional Reading
Classic studies on thought include John Dewey, How We Think (1910, reissued 1998); Jean Piaget, The Psychology of Intelligence (1950, reissued 2001; originally published in French, 1947); Gilbert Ryle, The Concept of Mind (1949, reissued 2002); and Jerome S. Bruner, Jacqueline J. Goodnow, and George A. Austin, A Study of Thinking (1956, reprinted 1986). Robert Thomson, The Psychology of Thinking (1959, reissued 1977), discusses experimental approaches to thinking; Robert J. Sternberg and Talia Ben-Zeev, Complex Cognition: The Psychology of Human Thought (2001), presents a general introduction to thinking and types of thinking; and Diane F. Halpern, Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking, 4th ed. (2003), observes the attainment of reflective judgment. Jacqueline P. Leighton and Robert J. Sternberg (eds.), The Nature of Reasoning (2004), is a useful collection of articles; as is Janet E. Davidson and Robert J. Sternberg (eds.), The Psychology of Problem Solving (2003).
Theoretical developments include Max Wertheimer, Productive Thinking, ed. by Michael Wertheimer, enlarged ed. (1959, reprinted 1982), on Gestalt theory; and Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon, Human Problem Solving (1972), on computer simulation.
Frederic Bartlett, Thinking: An Experimental and Social Study (1958, reprinted 1982), treats thinking as a skill, sometimes known as the “information-processing” approach; Lev Vygotsky, Thought and Language, trans. and ed. by Alex Kozulin, rev. ed. (1986; originally published in Russian, 1934), offers historical context for Soviet research on the topic; and Alex Kozulin, Psychological Tools: A Sociocultural Approach to Education (1998), examines ways in which culture influences thought.W. Edgar Vinacke Robert J. Sternberg