Snyder, W.C. and H.N. Hansen. 1940. The species concept in Fusarium. American Journal of Botany 27 (2):64–67.
Soetono. 1962. Stem rot disease of Vanilla. National Congress of Science in Indonesia, Yogyakarta, 24pp. (in Indonesian).
Stier, H.Z. 1984. Pratylenchus brachyurus associated with vine-dying of vanilla plants in Tonga. Disease Note. Plant Disease 68:628.
Sukamto, M. Tombe, and S. Mugi, l996. Clove by-products to control stem rot of vanilla. Proceedings of the Seminar on Integrated Control on Main Diseases off Industrial Crops. Bogor. March 13–14, 1996 AARD – JICA. 77–86 (in Indonesia, English Abstract).
Taufik, E. and D. Manohara. 1998. Other Vanilla Diseases. Research Institute for Spices and Medicinal Crops, Bogor, Indonesia. Monograf No. 4: 96–101 (in Indonesia, English Abstract).
Theis, T. and F.A. Jiménez. 1957. A vanilla hybrid resistant to root rot. Phytopathology 47:579–581.
Thomas, J., A.K. Vijayan, and R.S. Bhai. 2002. Vanilla diseases in India and their management. Indian Journal of Arecanut, Spices and Medicinal Plants 4:143–149.
Tombe, M. 1993a. Stem and Foot Rot on Vanilla. Diagnostic Manual for Industrial Crop Diseases in Indonesia. Japan International Cooperation Agency and Research Institute and Medicinal Crops, Indonesia, 76–77.
Tombe, M. 1993b. Anthracnose of Vanilla. Diagnostic Manual for Industrial Crop Diseases in Indonesia. Japan International Cooperation Agency and Research Institute and Medicinal Crops, Indonesia, 78pp.
Tombe, M. 1994. Studies on the stem rot disease of Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Andrews) in Indonesia. Faculty of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Japan. Ph.D. Thesis (unpublished).
Tombe, M. 2007. Introduction of Vanilla Stem Rot Disease (VSRD) and its control. Vanilla Malaysian for The World Course. Vanilla Biomatrix Sdn Bhd., Quality Hotel, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, December 14, 2007.
Tombe, M. 2008. Cultivation of Vanilla by using technology of BioFOB. Vanilla Course, Rural Development Corporation, Sabah, Malaysia. Beringgis Beach Resort, Kota Kinabalu Sabah, February 28–29, 2008, 13pp.
Tombe, M., K. Kobayashi, Ma’mun, Triantoro, M. Oniki, and K. Matsumoto. 1993. The role of eugenol in disease suppression of stem rot of vanilla. Annals of Phytopathological Society of Japan 59: 282 (Abstract).
Tombe, M., K. Kobayashi, and A. Ogoshi. 1994. Vegetative compatibility grouping of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vanillae in Indonesia. Indonesian Journal of Crop Science 9:29–39.
Tombe, M., K. Matsumoto, A. Nurawan, Sukamto, and S.B. Nazarudin. 1992a. Strains, morphology. Physiology and ecology of causal fungus and disease damages of vanilla. Proceedings of the Final Seminar of the Joint Study Programme RISMC-JICA, ATA-380. Bogor, Indonesia, 50–57.
Tombe, M., K. Matsumoto, A. Nurawan, Sukamto and S.B. Nazarudin. 1992b. Strains, morphology, physiology and ecology of causal fungus and disease damages of vanilla. Proceedings of the Final Seminar of the Joint Study Programme RISMC-JICA, ATA-380. Bogor, Indonesia, 50–57.
Tombe, M. and D. Sitepu. 1987. Diseases of vanilla in Indonesia. Edsus. Littri, Balittro 3(2):103–108 (in Indonesian).
Tombe, M., D. Sitepu, and S. Mogi. 1997. Present status of biological control research of vanilla stem rot disease in Indonesia. Proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop on Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria. Japan-OECD, Workshop, 13–17.
Tombe, M., K. Tsuchiya, A. Nurawan, S.B. Nazarudin, M. Oniki, and K. Matsumoto. 1992c. Experiment on the introduction of biological and culture control of stem rot disease of vanilla. Industrial Crops Research Journal, Bogor, Indonesia 4 (2):20–26.
Tsao, P.H. and L. Mu. 1987. Involvement of Phytopthora in vanilla root rot (abstract). Phytopathology 77:1704.
Tucker, C.M. 1927. Vanilla root rot. Journal of Agricultural Research 35 (12):1121–1136. Venter, S.L., D.J. Theron, P.J. Steyn, D.I. Ferreira, and A. Eicker. 1992. Relationship between vegetative compatibility and pathogenicity of isolates of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. tuberosi from potato. Phytopathology 82:858–862.
Xia-Hong, H. 2007. Biocontrol of root rot disease in Vanilla. Ph.D. thesis, the University of Wolverhampton, UK, 224pp.
Chapter 9. Bio-Ecology and Control of an Emerging Vanilla Pest, the Scale Conchaspis angraeci
Serge Quilici, Agathe Richard, and Kenny Le Roux
A few years after it was recorded on Reunion Island, a French island in the southwestern part of the Indian Ocean, the scale Conchaspis angraeci Cockerell, 1893 was of increasing concern for the vanilla producers on this island because of the damage it caused to this crop. By absorbing the sap of its host plants, this armored scale first leads to the formation of chlorotic spots on the leaves, then to a drying out of the leaf, and eventually, in extreme cases, to the death of the vine itself. As this pest has a wide geographical distribution over the recent years, we review its taxonomic position, its biology, ecology, natural enemies, and control.
Taxonomy and Morphology
The Angraecum scale or vanilla scale, C. angraeci, belongs to the family Conchaspididae (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) whose members closely resemble Diaspididae, with which they have long been confused. The family Conchaspididae is now regarded as a separate group within the Coccoidea. Female species in this family have a feature in common with members of the family Diaspididae—they build an armor that is independent from the rest of the insect body and their last abdominal segments are fused to form a pygidium, which is involved in the secretion of the armor. The genus Conchaspis contains 22 species (BenDov, 1981). One of the main morphological characteristics of C. angraeci female species is the aspect of the armor, circular in outline and conical in shape. The cone presents 6–8 ridges, radiating from the apex but ending without reaching the margin (Hamon, 1979). The armor is usually white, but may look grayish or yellowish in some cases.
Geographical Distribution
This species, common in tropical and subtropical areas, was first described from Jamaica (Cockerell, 1893). For a long time, it was mainly restricted to the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, whereas it is known in Mexico, the United States, Bermuda, Barbados, Cuba, Brazil, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Puerto-Rico, Surinam, Trinidad and Tobago, and Venezuela (BenDov, 1981). It was only in 1973 that it was also recorded in the Afrotropical region, in Angola and Cameroon, on Acalypha spp. (BenDov, 1974). It has since been found in Hawaii (Beardsley, 1993), in Australia (BenDov et al., 1985), in the Fiji Islands (Williams and Watson, 1990), in Malaysia (Takagi, 1992, 1997), and in French Polynesia (Quilici, 2002). In the southwestern Indian Ocean, it was first recorded in Reunion Island in 1997 (Richard et al., 2003), then in Mayotte, a French island belonging to the Comoros archipelago (Richard, 2003), and more recently in Mauritius in 2007 (S. Quilici and J.C. Streito, unpubl. data).