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Summary
E.O.Berzin’s monography, Southeastern Asia from the Earliest Epochs till the 13th Century[15], describes the initial period of history of Southeastern Asia: since the time when a human society first emerged there till the Mongolian invasion of the 13th century. The whole period can be divided into the following stages:
1. Before the 2nd—1st millenia B.C. — the epoch of tribal society.
2. The 1st millenium B.C. — class societies and states emerge in the region.
3. The 1st—6th centuries A.D. — the period of the highest cultural integration of Southeastern Asia on the basis of various cultural elements of Indian Origin shared by a great number of small independent states. During this period different forms of religion (Buddhism of Theravada and Mahayana, Shivaism, Vishnuism) were spreading over the entire region more or less evenly. There were no apparent rivalry between them as yet. Cultural image of all the countries of Southeastern Asia (except for Northern Vietnam belonging to th6 Far Eastern cultural sphere) could be estimated as uniform. Integration of the entire region was at that moment maximal.
4. In the 7th—10th centuries the process of integration of Southeast Asian countries is replaced by the process of accelerating disintegration. Empires emerge throughout the region, each of which seeks to unify its subject territories, implanting there the only state religion, whose rites substantiate claim of the monarch of this or that empire to the «world leadership». Thus the Srivijaya empire, holding sway over Western Indonesia and Malaysia, strived to spread Buddhism of the Mahayana school and opposed the East Javanese empire where Hinduism had become official religion. The Cambodian empire, controlling most of Eastern and Central Indochina, pitted its Hinduism (mostly in the guise of Shiva’s cult) against Buddhism of the Theravada school which had become the principal religion of Burma and in the Mon countries controlled by it. There was also a confrontation between Cambodia and Srivijaya. In the long run, none of the four main empires of Southeastern Asia succeeded in becoming a dominant power of the region. Therefore cultural disintegration and political confrontation associated with it became the chief phenomena of the epoch.
5. The 11th—13th centuries were the heyday of the early class states of Southeastern Asia, after which decline and fall were not long in coming. The fruitless struggle of the four powers for hegemony brought about general catastrophe — though military exhaustion of the rivals had not been the only cause thereof. General conditions in the world had undergone significant changes by the 13th century, and the role of Southeastern Asia in international trade became much more prominent. Development of market-based relations compelled the local feudals to try gaining more surplus products, therefore exploitation of the immediate producers of material goods grew more severe. At the same time, social structure of most Southeast Asian countries was best suited for natural economy (with the single exception of Srivijaya — but that country fell into decay as a result of unsuccessful wars). A considerable part of surplus products was spent on temple construction and sustenance of the numerous clergy. When new «weight» was added to the already heavy burden of exploitation, nothing could prevent social explosion that swept away the old-type states. The Mongolian invasion of the Southeast Asian countries merely aggravated the crisis that had already begun.
The total crisis of the states of Southeastern Asia in the 13th century led to the fall of virtually all large state formations in the region. They were supplanted by the new-type states of a less complicated structure. But that was the initial simplicity of a new turn of history — the simpler and stronger structures were in all probability going to become more and more complicated in the course of time, to accumulate inner defects and perish. Different sides of this complex many-century process are considered in the monograph, different countries of the region being used as illustrations.
Карта 2. Азия согласно Птолемею. Около 140 г. н.э.
